Numerical Investigation of the Local Scour for Tripod Pile Foundation

Waqed H. Hassan | Zahraa Mohammad Fadhe^* | Rifqa F. Thiab | Karrar Mahdi
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Warith Al-Anbiyaa, Kerbala 56001, Iraq
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kerbala, Kerbala 56001, Iraq
Corresponding Author Email: Waqed.hammed@uowa.edu.iq

OPEN ACCESS

Abstract:

This work investigates numerically a local scour moves in irregular waves around tripods. It is constructed and proven to use the numerical model of the seabed-tripod-fluid with an RNG k turbulence model. The present numerical model then examines the flow velocity distribution and scour characteristics. After that, the suggested computational model Flow-3D is a useful tool for analyzing and forecasting the maximum scour development and the flow field in random waves around tripods. The scour values affecting the foundations of the tripod must be studied and calculated, as this phenomenon directly and negatively affects the structure of the structure and its design life. The lower diagonal braces and the main column act as blockages, increasing the flow accelerations underneath them. This increases the number of particles that are moved, which in turn creates strong scouring in the area. The numerical model has a good agreement with the experimental model, with a maximum percentage of error of 10% between the experimental and numerical models. In addition, Based on dimensional analysis parameters, an empirical equation has been devised to forecast scour depth with flow depth, median size ratio, Keulegan-Carpenter (Kc), Froud number flow, and wave velocity that the results obtained in this research at various flow velocities and flow depths demonstrated that the maximum scour depth rate depended on wave height with rising velocities and decreasing particle sizes (d₅₀) and the scour depth attains its steady-current value for V_w < 0.75. As the Froude number rises, the maximum scour depth will be large.

Keywords:

local scour, tripod foundation, Flow-3D, waves

1. Introduction

New energy sources have been used by mankind since they become industrialized. The main energy sources have traditionally been timber, coal, oil, and gas, but advances in the science of new energies, such as nuclear energy, have emerged [1, 2]. Clean and renewable energy such as offshore wind has grown significantly during the past few decades. There are numerous different types of foundations regarding offshore wind turbines (OWTs), comprising the tripod, jacket, gravity foundation, suction anchor (or bucket), and monopile [3, 4]. When the water depth is less than 30 meters, Offshore wind farms usually employ the monopile type [4]. Engineers must deal with the wind’s scouring phenomenon turbine foundations when planning and designing wind turbines for an offshore environment [5]. Waves and currents generate scour, this is the erosion of soil near a submerged foundation and at its location [6]. To predict the regional scour depth at a bridge pier, Jalal et al. [7-10] developed an original gene expression algorithm using artificial neural networks. Three monopiles, one main column, and several diagonal braces connecting the monopiles to the main column make up the tripod foundation, which has more complicated shapes than a single pile. The design of the foundation may have an impact on scour depth and scour development since the foundation’s form affects the flow field [11, 12]. Stahlmann [4] conducted several field investigations. He discovered that the main column is where the greatest scour depth occurred. Under the main column is where the maximum scour depth occurs in all experiments. The estimated findings show that higher wave heights correspond to higher flow velocities, indicating that a deeper scour depth is correlated with finer silt granularity [13] recommends as the design value for a single pile. These findings support the assertion that a tripod may cause the seabed to scour more severely than a single pile. The geography of the scour is significantly more influenced by the KC value (Keulegan–Carpenter number)

The capability of computer hardware and software has made computational fluid dynamics (CFD) quite popular to predict the behavior of fluid flow in industrial and environmental applications has increased significantly in recent years [14].

Finding an acceptable piece of land for the turbine’s construction and designing the turbine pile precisely for the local conditions are the biggest challenges. Another concern related to working in a marine environment is the effect of sea waves and currents on turbine piles and foundations. The earth surrounding the turbine’s pile is scoured by the waves, which also render the pile unstable.

In this research, the main objective is to investigate numerically a local scour around tripods in random waves. It is constructed and proven to use the tripod numerical model. The present numerical model is then used to examine the flow velocity distribution and scour characteristics.

2. Numerical Model

To simulate the scouring process around the tripod foundation, the CFD code Flow-3D was employed. By using the fractional area/volume method, it may highlight the intricate boundaries of the solution domain (FAVOR).

This model was tested and validated utilizing data derived experimentally from Schendel et al. [15] and Sumer and Fredsøe [6]. 200 runs were performed at different values of parameters.

2.1 Momentum equations

The incompressible viscous fluid motion is described by the three RANS equations listed below [16]:

(1)

\frac{\partial u}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{{{V}_{F}}}\left( u{{A}_{x}}\frac{\partial u}{\partial x}+v{{A}_{y}}\frac{\partial u}{\partial y}+w{{A}_{z}}\frac{\partial u}{\partial z} \right)=-\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{\partial p}{\partial x}+{{G}_{x}}+fx

(2)

\frac{\partial v}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{{{V}_{F}}}\left( u{{A}_{x}}\frac{\partial v}{\partial x}+v{{A}_{y}}\frac{\partial v}{\partial y}+w{{A}_{z}}\frac{\partial v}{\partial z} \right)=-\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{\partial p}{\partial y}+{{G}_{y}}+\text{f}y

(3)

\frac{\partial w}{\partial t}+\frac{1}{{{V}_{F}}}\left( u{{A}_{x}}\frac{\partial w}{\partial x}+v{{A}_{y}}\frac{\partial w}{\partial y}+w{{A}_{z}}\frac{\partial w}{\partial z} \right)=-\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{\partial p}{\partial z}+{{G}_{z}}+\text{fz}

where, respectively, u, v, and w represent the x, y, and z flow velocity components; volume fraction (VF), area fraction (A_i; I=x, y, z), water density (f), viscous force (f_i), and body force (G_i) are all used in the formula.

2.2 Model of turbulence

Several turbulence models would be combined to solve the momentum equations. A two-equation model of turbulence is the RNG k-model, which has a high efficiency and accuracy in computing the near-wall flow field. Therefore, the flow field surrounding tripods was captured using the RNG k-model.

2.3 Model of sediment scour

2.3.1 Induction and deposition

Eq. (4) can be used to determine the particle entrainment lift velocity [17].

(4)

{{u}_{lift,i}}={{\alpha }_{i}}{{n}_{s}}d_{*}^{0.3}{{\left( \theta -{{\theta }_{cr}} \right)}^{1.5}}\sqrt{\frac{\parallel g\parallel {{d}_{i}}\left( {{\rho }_{i}}-{{\rho }_{f}} \right)}{{{\rho }_{f}}}}

α𝛼_i is the Induction parameter, n_s the normal vector is parallel to the seafloor, and for the present numerical model, n_s=(0,0,1), θ𝜃_cr is the essential Shields variable, g is the accelerated by gravity, d_i is the size of the particles, ρ_i is species density in beds, and d_∗ The diameter of particles without dimensions; these values can be obtained in Eq. (5).

(5)

{{d}_{*}}={{d}_{i}}{{\left( \frac{\parallel g\parallel {{\rho }_{f}}\left( {{\rho }_{i}}-{{\rho }_{f}} \right)}{\mu _{f}^{2}} \right)}^{1/3}}

μ𝜇_f is this equation a dynamic viscosity of the fluid. c_r was determined from an equation based on Soulsby [18].

(6)

{{\theta }_{cr}}=\frac{0.3}{1+1.2{{d}_{*}}}+0.055\left[ 1-\text{exp}\left( -0.02{{d}_{*}} \right) \right]

The equation was used to determine how quickly sand particles set Eq. (7):

(7)

{{\mathbf{u}}_{\text{nsettling},i}}=\frac{{{v}_{f}}}{{{d}_{i}}}\left[ {{\left( {{10.36}^{2}}+1.049d_{*}^{3} \right)}^{0.5}}-10.36 \right]

v_f stands for fluid kinematic viscosity.

2.3.2 Transportation for bed loads

Van Rijn [19] states that the speed of bed load conveyance was determined as:

(8)

{{~}_{\text{bedload},i}}=\frac{{{q}_{b,i}}}{{{\delta }_{i}}{{c}_{b,i}}{{f}_{b}}}

f_b is the essential particle packing percentage, q_b, i is the bed load transportation rate, and c_b, I the percentage of sand by volume i. These variables can be found in Eq. (9), Eq. (10), f_b, δ𝛿_i the bed load thickness.

(9)

{{q}_{b,i}}=8{{\left[ \parallel g\parallel \left( \frac{{{\rho }_{i}}-{{\rho }_{f}}}{{{\rho }_{f}}} \right)d_{i}^{3} \right]}^{\frac{1}{2}}}

(10)

{{\delta }_{i}}=0.3d_{*}^{0.7}{{\left( \frac{\theta }{{{\theta }_{cr}}}-1 \right)}^{0.5}}{{d}_{i}}

In this paper, after the calibration of numerous trials, the selection of parameters for sediment scour is crucial. Maximum packing fraction is 0.64 with a shields number of 0.05, entrainment coefficient of 0.018, the mass density of 2650, bed load coefficient of 12, and entrainment coefficient of 0.01.

3. Model Setup

To investigate the scour characteristics near tripods in random waves, the seabed-tripod-fluid numerical model was created as shown in Figure 1. The tripod basis, a seabed, and fluid and porous medium were all components of the model. The seabed was 240 meters long, 40 meters wide, and three meters high. It had a median diameter of d₅₀ and was composed of uniformly fine sand. The 2.5-meter main column diameter D. The base of the main column was three dimensions above the original seabed. The center of the seafloor was where the tripod was, 130 meters from the offshore and 110 meters from the onshore. To prevent wave reflection, the porous media were positioned above the seabed on the onshore side.

image013.png

Figure 1. An illustration of the numerical model for the seabed-tripod-fluid

3.1 Generation of meshes

Figure 2 displays the model’s mesh for the Flow-3D software grid. The current model made use of two different mesh types: global mesh grid and nested mesh grid. A mesh grid with the following measurements was created by the global hexahedra mesh grid: 240m length, 40m width, and 32m height. Around the tripod, a finer nested mesh grid was made, with dimensions of 0 to 32m on the z-axis, 10 to 30 m on the x-axis, and 25 to 15 m on the y-axis. This improved the calculation’s precision and mesh quality.

image014.png

Figure 2. The mesh block sketch

3.2 Conditional boundaries

To increase calculation efficiency, the top side, The model’s two x-z plane sides, as well as the symmetry boundaries, were all specified. For u, v, w=0, the bottom boundary wall was picked. The offshore end of the wave boundary was put upstream. For the wave border, random waves were generated using the wave spectrum from the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP). Boundary conditions are shown in Figure 3.

image015.png

Figure 3. Boundary conditions of the typical problem

The wave spectrum peak enhancement factor (=3.3 for this work) and can be used to express the unidirectional JONSWAP frequency spectrum.

3.3 Mesh sensitivity

Before doing additional research into scour traits and scour depth forecasting, mesh sensitivity analysis is essential. Three different mesh grid sizes were selected for this section: Mesh 1 has a 0.45 by 0.45 nested fine mesh and a 0.6 by 0.6 global mesh size. Mesh 2 has a 0.4 global mesh size and a 0.35 nested fine mesh size, while Mesh 3 has a 0.25 global mesh size and a nested fine mesh size of 0.15. Comparing the relative fine mesh size (such as Mesh 2 or Mesh 3) to the relatively coarse mesh size (such as Mesh 1), a larger scour depth was seen; this shows that a finer mesh size can more precisely represent the scouring and flow field action around a tripod. Significantly, a lower mesh size necessitates a time commitment and a more difficult computer configuration. Depending on the sensitivity of the mesh guideline utilized by Pang et al., when Mesh 2 is applied, the findings converge and the mesh size is independent [20]. In the next sections, scouring the area surrounding the tripod was calculated using Mesh 2 to ensure accuracy and reduce computation time. The working segment generates a total of 14, 800,324 cells.

3.4 Model validation

Comparisons between the predicted outcomes from the current model and to confirm that the current numerical model is accurate and suitably modified, experimental data from Sumer and Fredsøe [6] and Schendel et al. [15] were used. For the experimental results of Run 05, Run 15, and Run 22 from Sumer and Fredsøe [6], the experimental A9, A13, A17, A25, A26, and A27 results from Schendel et al. [15], and the numerical results from the current model are shown in Figure 4. The present model had d₅₀=0.051cm, the height of the water wave(h)=10m, and wave velocity=0.854 m.s^-1.

image016.png

Figure 4. Cell size effect

image017.png

Figure 5. Comparison of the present study’s maximum scour depth with that authored by Sumer and Fredsøe [6] and Schendel et al. [15]

According to Figure 5, the highest discrepancy between the numerical results and experimental data is about 10%, showing that overall, there is good agreement between them. The ability of the current numerical model to accurately depict the scour process and forecast the maximum scour depth (S) near foundations is demonstrated by this. Errors in the simulation were reduced by using the calibrated values of the parameter. Considering these results, a suggested simulated scouring utilizing a Flow-3D numerical model is confirmed as a superior way for precisely forecasting the maximum scour depth near a tripod foundation in random waves.

3.5 Dimensional analysis

The variables found in this study as having the greatest impacts, variables related to flow, fluid, bed sediment, flume shape, and duration all had an impact on local scouring depth (t). Hence, scour depth (S) can be seen as a function of these factors, shown as:

(11)

S=f\left(\rho, v, V, h, g, \rho s, d_{50}, \sigma g, V_w, D, d, T_v, t\right)

With the aid of dimensional analysis, the 14-dimensional parameters in Eq. (11) were reduced to 6 dimensionless variables using Buckingham’s -theorem. D, V, and were therefore set as repetition parameters and others as constants, allowing for the ignoring of their influence. Eq. (12) thus illustrates the relationship between the effect of the non-dimensional components on the depth of scour surrounding a tripod base.

(12)

\frac{S}{D}=f\left(\frac{h}{D}, \frac{d 50}{D}, \frac{V}{V W}, F r, K c\right)

where, SD𝑆𝐷 are scoured depth ratio, VVw𝑉𝑉𝑤 is flow wave velocity, d50D𝑑50𝐷 median size ratio, $Fr representstheFroudnumber,and𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠𝑡ℎ𝑒𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟,𝑎𝑛𝑑Kc$ is the Keulegan-Carpenter.

4. Result and Discussion

4.1 Development of scour

Similar to how the physical model was used, this numerical model was also used. The numerical model’s boundary conditions and other crucial variables that directly influence the outcomes were applied (flow depth, median particle size (d₅₀), and wave velocity). After the initial 0-300 s, the scour rate reduced as the scour holes grew quickly. The scour depths steadied for about 1800 seconds before reaching an asymptotic value. The findings of scour depth with time are displayed in Figure 6.

4.2 Features of scour

Early on (t=400s), the scour hole began to appear beneath the main column and then began to extend along the diagonal bracing connecting to the wall-facing pile. Gradually, the geography of the scour; of these results is similar to the experimental observations of Stahlmann [4] and Aminoroayaie Yamini et al. [1]. As the waves reached the tripod, there was an enhanced flow acceleration underneath the main column and the lower diagonal braces as a result of the obstructing effects of the structural elements. More particles are mobilized and transported due to the enhanced near-bed flow velocity, it also increases bed shear stress, turbulence, and scour at the site. In comparison to a single pile, the main column and structural components of the tripod have a significant impact on the flow velocity distribution and, consequently, the scour process and morphology. The main column and seabed are separated by a gap, therefore the flow across the gap may aid in scouring. The scour hole first emerged beneath the main column and subsequently expanded along the lower structural components, both Aminoroayaie Yamini et al. [1] and Stahlmann [4] made this claim. Around the tripod, there are several different scour morphologies and the flow velocity distribution as shown in Figures 7 and 8.

image023.png

Figure 6. Results of scour depth with time

image024.png

image025.png

image026.png

image027.png

Figure 7. The sequence results of scour depth around tripod development (reached to steady state) simulation time

image028.png

image029.png

image030.png

image031.png

Figure 8. Random waves of flow velocity distribution around a tripod

4.3 Wave velocity’s (V_w) impact on scour depth

In this study’s section, we looked at how variations in wave current velocity affected the scouring depth. Bed scour pattern modification could result from an increase or decrease in waves. As a result, the backflow area produced within the pile would become stronger, which would increase the depth of the sediment scour. The quantity of current turbulence is the primary cause of the relationship between wave height and bed scour value. The current velocity has increased the extent to which the turbulence energy has changed and increased in strength now present. It should be mentioned that in this instance, the Jon swap spectrum random waves are chosen. The scour depth attains its steady-current value for Vw<0.75, Figure 9 (a) shows that effect. When (V) represents the mean velocity=0.5 m.s^-1.

image032.png

(a)

image033.png

(b)

image034.png

(c)

image035.png

(d)

Figure 9. Main effects on maximum scour depth (S_max) as a function of column diameter (D)

4.4 Impact of a median particle (d₅₀) on scour depth

In this section of the study, we looked into how variations in particle size affected how the bed profile changed. The values of various particle diameters are defined in the numerical model for each run numerical modeling, and the conditions under which changes in particle diameter have an impact on the bed scour profile are derived. Based on Figure 9 (b), the findings of the numerical modeling show that as particle diameter increases the maximum scour depth caused by wave contact decreases. When (d₅₀) is the diameter of Sediment (d₅₀). The Shatt Al-Arab soil near Basra, Iraq, was used to produce a variety of varied diameters.

4.5 Impact of wave height and flow depth (h) on scour depth

One of the main elements affecting the scour profile brought on by the interaction of the wave and current with the piles of the wind turbines is the height of the wave surrounding the turbine pile causing more turbulence to develop there. The velocity towards the bottom and the bed both vary as the turbulence around the pile is increased, modifying the scour profile close to the pile. According to the results of the numerical modeling, the depth of scour will increase as water depth and wave height in random waves increase as shown in Figure 9 (c).

4.6 Froude number’s (Fr) impact on scour depth

No matter what the spacing ratio, the Figure 9 shows that the Froude number rises, and the maximum scour depth often rises as well increases in Figure 9 (d). Additionally, it is crucial to keep in mind that only a small portion of the findings regarding the spacing ratios with the smallest values. Due to the velocity acceleration in the presence of a larger Froude number, the range of edge scour downstream is greater than that of upstream. Moreover, the scouring phenomena occur in the region farthest from the tripod, perhaps as a result of the turbulence brought on by the collision of the tripod’s pile. Generally, as the Froude number rises, so does the deposition height and scour depth.

4.7 Keulegan-Carpenter (KC) number

The geography of the scour is significantly more influenced by the KC value. Greater KC causes a deeper equilibrium scour because an increase in KC lengthens the horseshoe vortex’s duration and intensifies it as shown in Figure 10.

The result can be attributed to the fact that wave superposition reduced the crucial KC for the initiation of the scour, particularly under small KC conditions. The primary variable in the equation used to calculate This is the depth of the scouring hole at the bed. The following expression is used to calculate the Keulegan-Carpenter number:

Kc=Vw∗TpD𝐾𝑐=𝑉𝑤∗𝑇𝑝𝐷 (13)

where, the wave period is T_p and the wave velocity is shown by V_w_.

image037.png

Figure 10. Relationship between the relative maximum scour depth and KC

5. Conclusion

(1) The existing seabed-tripod-fluid numerical model is capable of faithfully reproducing the scour process and the flow field around tripods, suggesting that it may be used to predict the scour around tripods in random waves.

(2) Their results obtained in this research at various flow velocities and flow depths demonstrated that the maximum scour depth rate depended on wave height with rising velocities and decreasing particle sizes (d₅₀).

(3) A diagonal brace and the main column act as blockages, increasing the flow accelerations underneath them. This raises the magnitude of the disturbance and the shear stress on the seafloor, which in turn causes a greater number of particles to be mobilized and conveyed, as a result, causes more severe scour at the location.

(4) The Froude number and the scouring process are closely related. In general, as the Froude number rises, so does the maximum scour depth and scour range. The highest maximum scour depth always coincides with the bigger Froude number with the shortest spacing ratio.

Since the issue is that there aren’t many experiments or studies that are relevant to this subject, therefore we had to rely on the monopile criteria. Therefore, to gain a deeper knowledge of the scouring effect surrounding the tripod in random waves, further numerical research exploring numerous soil, foundation, and construction elements as well as upcoming physical model tests will be beneficial.

Nomenclature

CFD	Computational fluid dynamics
FAVOR	Fractional Area/Volume Obstacle Representation
VOF	Volume of Fluid
RNG	Renormalized Group
OWTs	Offshore wind turbines
Greek Symbols
ε, ω	Dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy, m²s^-3
Subscripts
d₅₀	Median particle size
V_f	Volume fraction
G_T	Turbulent energy of buoyancy
K_T	Turbulent velocity
P_T	Kinetic energy of the turbulence
Α_i	Induction parameter
n_s	Induction parameter
ΘΘ_cr	The essential Shields variable
D_i	Diameter of sediment
d_∗	The diameter of particles without dimensions
µ_f	Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
q_b,_i	The bed load transportation rate
C_s,i	Sand particle’s concentration of mass
D	Diameter of pile
D_f	Diffusivity
D	Diameter of main column
Fr	Froud number
Kc	Keulegan–Carpenter number
G	Acceleration of gravity g
H	Flow depth
Vw	Wave Velocity
V	Mean Velocity
Tp	Wave Period
S	Scour depth

References

[1] Aminoroayaie Yamini, O., Mousavi, S.H., Kavianpour, M.R., Movahedi, A. (2018). Numerical modeling of sediment scouring phenomenon around the offshore wind turbine pile in marine environment. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77: 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7967-4

[2] Hassan, W.H., Hashim, F.S. (2020). The effect of climate change on the maximum temperature in Southwest Iraq using HadCM3 and CanESM2 modelling. SN Applied Sciences, 2(9): 1494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03302-z

[3] Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Rosa-Santos, P., Taveira-Pinto, F., Pavlou, D., Gao, F.P., Carvalho, H., Oliveira-Pinto, S. (2020). Preface: Advanced research on offshore structures and foundation design part 2. In Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Maritime Engineering. Thomas Telford Ltd, 173(4): 96-99. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.2020.173.4.96

[4] Stahlmann, A. (2013). Numerical and experimental modeling of scour at foundation structures for offshore wind turbines. In ISOPE International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference. ISOPE, pp. ISOPE-I.

[5] Petersen, T.U., Sumer, B.M., Fredsøe, J. (2014). Edge scour at scour protections around offshore wind turbine foundations. In 7th International Conference on Scour and Erosion. CRC Press, pp. 587-592.

[6] Sumer, B.M., Fredsøe, J. (2001). Scour around pile in combined waves and current. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 127(5): 403-411. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2001)127:5(403)

[7] Jalal, H.K., Hassan, W.H. (2020). Effect of bridge pier shape on depth of scour. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing, 671(1): 012001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/671/1/012001

[8] Hassan, W.H., Jalal, H.K. (2021). Prediction of the depth of local scouring at a bridge pier using a gene expression programming method. SN Applied Sciences, 3(2): 159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-04124-9

[9] Jalal, H.K., Hassan, W.H. (2020). Three-dimensional numerical simulation of local scour around circular bridge pier using Flow-3D software. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing, 745(1): 012150. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/745/1/012150

[10] Hassan, W.H., Attea, Z.H., Mohammed, S.S. (2020). Optimum layout design of sewer networks by hybrid genetic algorithm. Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research, 8(2): 108-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/23249676.2020.1761897

[11] Hassan, W.H., Hussein, H.H., Alshammari, M.H., Jalal, H.K., Rasheed, S.E. (2022). Evaluation of gene expression programming and artificial neural networks in PyTorch for the prediction of local scour depth around a bridge pier. Results in Engineering, 13: 100353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100353

[12] Hassan, W.H., Hh, H., Mohammed, S.S., Jalal, H.K., Nile, B.K. (2021). Evaluation of gene expression programming to predict the local scour depth around a bridge pier. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 16(2): 1232-1243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100353

[13] Nerland, C. (2010). Offshore wind energy: Balancing risk and reward. In Proceedings of the Canadian Wind Energy Association’s 2010 Annual Conference and Exhibition, Canada, p. 2000.

[14] Hassan, W.H., Nile, B.K., Mahdi, K., Wesseling, J., Ritsema, C. (2021). A feasibility assessment of potential artificial recharge for increasing agricultural areas in the kerbala desert in Iraq using numerical groundwater modeling. Water, 13(22): 3167. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223167

[15] Schendel, A., Welzel, M., Schlurmann, T., Hsu, T.W. (2020). Scour around a monopile induced by directionally spread irregular waves in combination with oblique currents. Coastal Engineering, 161: 103751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2020.103751

[16] Yakhot, V., Orszag, S.A. (1986). Renormalization group analysis of turbulence. I. Basic theory. Journal of Scientific Computing, 1(1): 3-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01061452

[17] Mastbergen, D.R., Van Den Berg, J.H. (2003). Breaching in fine sands and the generation of sustained turbidity currents in submarine canyons. Sedimentology, 50(4): 625-637. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2003.00554.x

[18] Soulsby, R. (1997). Dynamics of marine sands. https://doi.org/10.1680/doms.25844

[19] Van Rijn, L.C. (1984). Sediment transport, part I: Bed load transport. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 110(10): 1431-1456. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1984)110:10(1431)

[20] Pang, A.L.J., Skote, M., Lim, S.Y., Gullman-Strand, J., Morgan, N. (2016). A numerical approach for determining equilibrium scour depth around a mono-pile due to steady currents. Applied Ocean Research, 57: 114-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2016.02.010

Estimating maximum initial wave amplitude of subaerial landslide tsunamis: A three-dimensional modelling approach

해저 산사태 쓰나미의 최대 초기 파동 진폭 추정: 3차원 모델링 접근법

Ramtin Sabeti ^a, Mohammad Heidarzadeh ^ab

^aDepartment of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA27AY, UK
^bHydroCoast Consulting Engineers Ltd, Bath, UK

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2024.102360

Highlights

•Landslide travel distance is considered for the first time in a predictive equation.
•Predictive equation derived from databases using 3D physical and numerical modeling.
•The equation was successfully tested on the 2018 Anak Krakatau tsunami event.
•The developed equation using three-dimensional data exhibits a 91 % fitting quality.

Abstract

Landslide tsunamis, responsible for thousands of deaths and significant damage in recent years, necessitate the allocation of sufficient time and resources for studying these extreme natural hazards. This study offers a step change in the field by conducting a large number of three-dimensional numerical experiments, validated by physical tests, to develop a predictive equation for the maximum initial amplitude of tsunamis generated by subaerial landslides. We first conducted a few 3D physical experiments in a wave basin which were then applied for the validation of a 3D numerical model based on the Flow3D-HYDRO package. Consequently, we delivered 100 simulations using the validated model by varying parameters such as landslide volume, water depth, slope angle and travel distance. This large database was subsequently employed to develop a predictive equation for the maximum initial tsunami amplitude. For the first time, we considered travel distance as an independent parameter for developing the predictive equation, which can significantly improve the predication accuracy. The predictive equation was tested for the case of the 2018 Anak Krakatau subaerial landslide tsunami and produced satisfactory results.

Keywords

Tsunami, Subaerial landslide, Physical modelling, Numerical simulation, FLOW-3D HYDRO

1. Introduction and literature review

The Anak Krakatau landslide tsunami on 22nd December 2018 was a stark reminder of the dangers posed by subaerial landslide tsunamis (Ren et al., 2020; Mulia et al. 2020a; Borrero et al., 2020; Heidarzadeh et al., 2020; Grilli et al., 2021). The collapse of the volcano’s southwest side into the ocean triggered a tsunami that struck the Sunda Strait, leading to approximately 450 fatalities (Syamsidik et al., 2020; Mulia et al., 2020b) (Fig. 1). As shown in Fig. 1, landslide tsunamis (both submarine and subaerial) have been responsible for thousands of deaths and significant damage to coastal communities worldwide. These incidents underscored the critical need for advanced research into landslide-generated waves to aid in hazard prediction and mitigation. This is further emphasized by recent events such as the 28th of November 2020 landslide tsunami in the southern coast mountains of British Columbia (Canada), where an 18 million m³ rockslide generated a massive tsunami, with over 100 m wave run-up, causing significant environmental and infrastructural damage (Geertsema et al., 2022).

Physical modelling and numerical simulation are crucial tools in the study of landslide-induced waves due to their ability to replicate and analyse the complex dynamics of landslide events (Kim et al., 2020). In two-dimensional (2D) modelling, the discrepancy between dimensions can lead to an artificial overestimation of wave amplification (e.g., Heller and Spinneken, 2015). This limitation is overcome with 3D modelling, which enables the scaled-down representation of landslide-generated waves while avoiding the simplifications inherent in 2D approaches (Erosi et al., 2019). Another advantage of 3D modelling in studying landslide-generated waves is its ability to accurately depict the complex dynamics of wave propagation, including lateral and radial spreading from the slide impact zone, a feature unattainable with 2D models (Heller and Spinneken, 2015).

Physical experiments in tsunami research, as presented by authors such as Romano et al. (2020), McFall and Fritz (2016), and Heller and Spinneken (2015), have supported 3D modelling works through validation and calibration of the numerical models to capture the complexities of wave generation and propagation. Numerical modelling has increasingly complemented experimental approach in tsunami research due to the latter’s time and resource-intensive nature, particularly for 3D models (Li et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2021). Various numerical approaches have been employed, from Eulerian and Lagrangian frameworks to depth-averaged and Navier–Stokes models, enhancing our understanding of tsunami dynamics (Si et al., 2018; Grilli et al., 2019; Heidarzadeh et al., 2017, 2020; Iorio et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021; Kirby et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021, 2022; Hu et al., 2022). The sophisticated numerical techniques, including the Particle Finite Element Method and the Immersed Boundary Method, have also shown promising results in modelling highly dynamic landslide scenarios (Mulligan et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020). Among these methods and techniques, FLOW-3D HYDRO stands out in simulating landslide-generated tsunami waves due to its sophisticated technical features such as offering Tru Volume of Fluid (VOF) method for precise free surface tracking (e.g., Sabeti and Heidarzadeh 2022a). TruVOF distinguishes itself through a split Lagrangian approach, adeptly reducing cumulative volume errors in wave simulations by dynamically updating cell volume fractions and areas with each time step. Its intelligent adaptation of time step size ensures precise capture of evolving free surfaces, offering unparalleled accuracy in modelling complex fluid interfaces and behaviour (Flow Science, 2023).

Predictive equations play a crucial role in assessing the potential hazards associated with landslide-generated tsunami waves due to their ability to provide risk assessment and warnings. These equations can offer swift and reasonable evaluations of potential tsunami impacts in the absence of detailed numerical simulations, which can be time-consuming and expensive to produce. Among multiple factors and parameters within a landslide tsunami generation, the initial maximum wave amplitude (Fig. 1) stands out due to its critical role. While it is most likely that the initial wave generated by a landslide will have the highest amplitude, it is crucial to clarify that the term “initial maximum wave amplitude” refers to the highest amplitude within the first set of impulse waves. This parameter is essential in determining the tsunami’s impact severity, with higher amplitudes signalling a greater destructive potential (Sabeti and Heidarzadeh 2022a). Additionally, it plays a significant role in tsunami modelling, aiding in the prediction of wave propagation and the assessment of potential impacts.

In this study, we initially validate the FLOW-3D HYDRO model through a series of physical experiments conducted in a 3D wave tank at University of Bath (UK). Upon confirmation of the model’s accuracy, we use it to systematically vary parameters namely landslide volume, water depth, slope angle, and travel distance, creating an extensive database. Alongside this, we perform a sensitivity analysis on these variables to discern their impacts on the initial maximum wave amplitude. The generated database was consequently applied to derive a non-dimensional predictive equation aimed at estimating the initial maximum wave amplitude in real-world landslide tsunami events.

Two innovations of this study are: (i) The predictive equation of this study is based on a large number of 3D experiments whereas most of the previous equations were based on 2D results, and (ii) For the first time, the travel distance is included in the predictive equation as an independent parameter. To evaluate the performance of our predictive equation, we applied it to a previous real-world subaerial landslide tsunami, i.e., the Anak Krakatau 2018 event. Furthermore, we compare the performance of our predictive equation with other existing equations.

2. Data and methods

The methodology applied in this research is a combination of physical and numerical modelling. Limited physical modelling was performed in a 3D wave basin at the University of Bath (UK) to provide data for calibration and validation of the numerical model. After calibration and validation, the numerical model was employed to model a large number of landslide tsunami scenarios which allowed us to develop a database for deriving a predictive equation.

2.1. Physical experiments

To validate our numerical model, we conducted a series of physical experiments including two sets in a 3D wave basin at University of Bath, measuring 2.50 m in length (W_L), 2.60 m in width (W_W), and 0.60 m in height (W_H) (Fig. 2a). Conducting two distinct sets of experiments (Table 1), each with different setups (travel distance, location, and water depth), provided a robust framework for validation of the numerical model. For wave measurement, we employed a twin wire wave gauge from HR Wallingford (https://equipit.hrwallingford.com). In these experiments, we used a concrete prism solid block, the dimensions of which are outlined in Table 2. In our experiments, we employed a concrete prism solid block with a density of 2600 kg/m³, chosen for its similarity to the natural density of landslides, akin to those observed with the 2018 Anak Krakatau tsunami, where the landslide composition is predominantly solid rather than granular. The block’s form has also been endorsed in prior studies (Watts, 1998; Najafi-Jilani and Ataie-Ashtiani, 2008) as a suitable surrogate for modelling landslide-induced waves. A key aspect of our methodology was addressing scale effects, following the guidelines proposed by Heller et al. (2008) as it is described in Table 1. To enhance the reliability and accuracy of our experimental data, we conducted each physical experiment three times which revealed all three experimental waveforms were identical. This repetition was aimed at minimizing potential errors and inconsistencies in laboratory measurements.

Table 1. The locations and other information of the laboratory setups for making landslide-generated waves in the physical wave basin. This table details the specific parameters for each setup, including slope range (α), slide volume (V), kinematic viscosity (ν), water depth (h), travel distance (D), surface tension coefficient of water (σ), Reynolds number (R), Weber number (W), and the precise coordinates of the wave gauges (WG).

Lab	α(°)	V (m³)	h (m)	D (m)		(ν) (m²/s)	(σ) (N/m)	Acceptable range for avoiding scale effects*	Observed values of W and R ^⁎⁎
Lab 1	45	2.60 × 10⁻³	0.247	0.070	X₁=1.090 m	1.01 × 10⁻⁶	0.073	R > 3.0 × 10⁵	R₁ = 3.80 × 10⁵
					Y₁=1.210 m				R₁ = 3.80 × 10⁵
					Y₁=1.210 m				W₁ = 8.19 × 10⁵
					Z₁=0.050m			W >5.0 × 10³	W₁ = 8.19 × 10⁵
Lab 2	45	2.60 × 10⁻³	0.246	0.045	X₂=1.030 m	1.01 × 10⁻⁶	0.073		R₂ = 3.78 × 10⁵
					Y₂=1.210 m				W₂ = 8.13 × 10⁵
					Z₂=0.050 m				W₂ = 8.13 × 10⁵

⁎

The acceptable ranges for avoiding scale effects are based on the study by Heller et al. (2008).⁎⁎

The Reynolds number (R) is given by g^0.5h^1.5/ν, with ν denoting the kinematic viscosity. The Weber number (W) is W = ρgh²/σ, where σ represents surface tension coefficient and ρ = 1000kg/m³ is the density of water. In our experiments, conducted at a water temperature of approximately 20 °C, the kinematic viscosity (ν) and the surface tension coefficient of water (σ) are 1.01 × 10⁻⁶ m²/s and 0.073 N/m, respectively (Kestin et al., 1978).

Table 2. Specifications of the solid block used in physical experiments for generating subaerial landslides in the laboratory.

Solid-block attributes	Property metrics	Geometric shape
Slide width (b_s)	0.26 m
Slide length (l_s)	0.20 m
Slide thickness (s)	0.10 m
Slide volume (V)	2.60 × 10⁻³ m³
Specific gravity, (γ_s)	2.60
Slide weight (m_s)	6.86 kg

2.2. Numerical simulations applying FLOW-3D hydro

The detailed theoretical framework encompassing the governing equations, the computational methodologies employed, and the specific techniques used for tracking the water surface in these simulations are thoroughly detailed in the study by Sabeti et al. (2024). Here, we briefly explain some of the numerical details. We defined a uniform mesh for our flow domain, carefully crafted with a fine spatial resolution of 0.005 m (i.e., grid size). The dimensions of the numerical model directly matched those of our wave basin used in the physical experiment, being 2.60 m wide, 0.60 m deep, and 2.50 m long (Fig. 2). This design ensures comprehensive coverage of the study area. The output intervals of the numerical model are set at 0.02 s. This timing is consistent with the sampling rates of wave gauges used in laboratory settings. The friction coefficient in the FLOW-3D HYDRO is designated as 0.45. This value corresponds to the Coulombic friction measurements obtained in the laboratory, ensuring that the simulation accurately reflects real-world physical interactions.

In order to simulate the landslide motion, we applied coupled motion objects in FLOW-3D-HYDRO where the dynamics are predominantly driven by gravity and surface friction. This methodology stands in contrast to other models that necessitate explicit inputs of force and torque. This approach ensures that the simulation more accurately reflects the natural movement of landslides, which is heavily reliant on gravitational force and the interaction between sliding surfaces. The stability of the numerical simulations is governed by the Courant Number criterion (Courant et al., 1928), which dictates the maximum time step (Δt) for a given mesh size (Δx) and flow speed (U). According to Courant et al. (1928), this number is required to stay below one to ensure stability of numerical simulations. In our simulations, the Courant number is always maintained below one.

In alignment with the parameters of physical experiments, we set the fluid within the mesh to water, characterized by a density of 1000 kg/m³ at a temperature of 20 °C. Furthermore, we defined the top, front, and back surfaces of the mesh as symmetry planes. The remaining surfaces are designated as wall types, incorporating no-slip conditions to accurately simulate the interaction between the fluid and the boundaries. In terms of selection of an appropriate turbulence model, we selected the k–ω model that showed a better performance than other turbulence methods (e.g., Renormalization-Group) in a previous study (Sabeti et al., 2024). The simulations are conducted using a PC Intel® Core™ i7-10510U CPU with a frequency of 1.80 GHz, and a 16 GB RAM. On this PC, completion of a 3-s simulation required approximately 12.5 h.

2.3. Validation

The FLOW-3D HYDRO numerical model was validated using the two physical experiments (Fig. 3) outlined in Table 1. The level of agreement between observations (O_i) and simulations (S_i) is examined using the following equation:(1)�=|��−��|×100where ε represents the mismatch error, O_i denotes the observed laboratory values, and S_i represents the simulated values from the FLOW-3D HYDRO model. The results of this validation process revealed that our model could replicate the waves generated in the physical experiments with a reasonable degree of mismatch (ε): 14 % for Lab 1 and 8 % for Lab 2 experiments, respectively (Fig. 3). These values indicate that while the model is not perfect, it provides a sufficiently close approximation of the real-world phenomena.

In terms of mesh efficiency, we varied the mesh size to study sensitivity of the numerical results to mesh size. First, by halving the mesh size and then by doubling it, we repeated the modelling by keeping other parameters unchanged. This analysis guided that a mesh size of ∆x = 0.005 m is the most effective for the setup of this study. The total number of computational cells applying mesh size of 0.005 m is 9.269 × 10⁶.

2.4. The dataset

The validated numerical model was employed to conduct 100 simulations, incorporating variations in four key landslide parameters namely water depth, slope angle, slide volume, and travel distance. This methodical approach was essential for a thorough sensitivity analysis of these variables, and for the creation of a detailed database to develop a predictive equation for maximum initial tsunami amplitude. Within the model, 15 distinct slide volumes were established, ranging from 0.10 × 10⁻³ m³ to 6.25 × 10⁻³ m³ (Table 3). The slope angle varied between 35° and 55°, and water depth ranged from 0.24 m to 0.27 m. The travel distance of the landslides was varied, spanning from 0.04 m to 0.07 m. Detailed configurations of each simulation, along with the maximum initial wave amplitudes and dominant wave periods are provided in Table 4.

Table 3. Geometrical information of the 15 solid blocks used in numerical modelling for generating landslide tsunamis. Parameters are: l_s, slide length; b_s, slide width; s, slide thickness; γ_s, specific gravity; and V, slide volume.

Solid block	l_s (m)	b_s (m)	s (m)	V (m³)	γ_s
Block-1	0.310	0.260	0.155	6.25 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-2	0.300	0.260	0.150	5.85 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-3	0.280	0.260	0.140	5.10 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-4	0.260	0.260	0.130	4.39 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-5	0.240	0.260	0.120	3.74 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-6	0.220	0.260	0.110	3.15 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-7	0.200	0.260	0.100	2.60 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-8	0.180	0.260	0.090	2.11 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-9	0.160	0.260	0.080	1.66 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-10	0.140	0.260	0.070	1.27 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-11	0.120	0.260	0.060	0.93 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-12	0.100	0.260	0.050	0.65 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-13	0.080	0.260	0.040	0.41 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-14	0.060	0.260	0.030	0.23 × 10⁻³	2.60
Block-15	0.040	0.260	0.020	0.10 × 10⁻³	2.60

Table 4. The numerical simulation for the 100 tests performed in this study for subaerial solid-block landslide-generated waves. Parameters are a_M, maximum wave amplitude; α, slope angle; h, water depth; D, travel distance; and T, dominant wave period. The location of the wave gauge is X=1.030 m, Y=1.210 m, and Z=0.050 m. The properties of various solid blocks are presented in Table 3.

Test-	Block No	α (°)	h (m)	D (m)	T(s)	a_M (m)
1	Block-7	45	0.246	0.029	0.510	0.0153
2	Block-7	45	0.246	0.030	0.505	0.0154
3	Block-7	45	0.246	0.031	0.505	0.0156
4	Block-7	45	0.246	0.032	0.505	0.0158
5	Block-7	45	0.246	0.033	0.505	0.0159
6	Block-7	45	0.246	0.034	0.505	0.0160
7	Block-7	45	0.246	0.035	0.505	0.0162
8	Block-7	45	0.246	0.036	0.505	0.0166
9	Block-7	45	0.246	0.037	0.505	0.0167
10	Block-7	45	0.246	0.038	0.505	0.0172
11	Block-7	45	0.246	0.039	0.505	0.0178
12	Block-7	45	0.246	0.040	0.505	0.0179
13	Block-7	45	0.246	0.041	0.505	0.0181
14	Block-7	45	0.246	0.042	0.505	0.0183
15	Block-7	45	0.246	0.043	0.505	0.0190
16	Block-7	45	0.246	0.044	0.505	0.0197
17	Block-7	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0199
18	Block-7	45	0.246	0.046	0.505	0.0201
19	Block-7	45	0.246	0.047	0.505	0.0191
20	Block-7	45	0.246	0.048	0.505	0.0217
21	Block-7	45	0.246	0.049	0.505	0.0220
22	Block-7	45	0.246	0.050	0.505	0.0226
23	Block-7	45	0.246	0.051	0.505	0.0236
24	Block-7	45	0.246	0.052	0.505	0.0239
25	Block-7	45	0.246	0.053	0.510	0.0240
26	Block-7	45	0.246	0.054	0.505	0.0241
27	Block-7	45	0.246	0.055	0.505	0.0246
28	Block-7	45	0.246	0.056	0.505	0.0247
29	Block-7	45	0.246	0.057	0.505	0.0248
30	Block-7	45	0.246	0.058	0.505	0.0249
31	Block-7	45	0.246	0.059	0.505	0.0251
32	Block-7	45	0.246	0.060	0.505	0.0257
33	Block-1	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0319
34	Block-2	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0294
35	Block-3	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0282
36	Block-4	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0262
37	Block-5	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0243
38	Block-6	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0223
39	Block-7	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0196
40	Block-8	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0197
41	Block-9	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0198
42	Block-10	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0184
43	Block-11	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0173
44	Block-12	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0165
45	Block-13	45	0.246	0.045	0.404	0.0153
46	Block-14	45	0.246	0.045	0.404	0.0124
47	Block-15	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0066
48	Block-7	45	0.202	0.045	0.404	0.0220
49	Block-7	45	0.204	0.045	0.404	0.0219
50	Block-7	45	0.206	0.045	0.404	0.0218
51	Block-7	45	0.208	0.045	0.404	0.0217
52	Block-7	45	0.210	0.045	0.404	0.0216
53	Block-7	45	0.212	0.045	0.404	0.0215
54	Block-7	45	0.214	0.045	0.505	0.0214
55	Block-7	45	0.216	0.045	0.505	0.0214
56	Block-7	45	0.218	0.045	0.505	0.0213
57	Block-7	45	0.220	0.045	0.505	0.0212
58	Block-7	45	0.222	0.045	0.505	0.0211
59	Block-7	45	0.224	0.045	0.505	0.0208
60	Block-7	45	0.226	0.045	0.505	0.0203
61	Block-7	45	0.228	0.045	0.505	0.0202
62	Block-7	45	0.230	0.045	0.505	0.0201
63	Block-7	45	0.232	0.045	0.505	0.0201
64	Block-7	45	0.234	0.045	0.505	0.0200
65	Block-7	45	0.236	0.045	0.505	0.0199
66	Block-7	45	0.238	0.045	0.404	0.0196
67	Block-7	45	0.240	0.045	0.404	0.0194
68	Block-7	45	0.242	0.045	0.404	0.0193
69	Block-7	45	0.244	0.045	0.404	0.0192
70	Block-7	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0190
71	Block-7	45	0.248	0.045	0.505	0.0189
72	Block-7	45	0.250	0.045	0.505	0.0187
73	Block-7	45	0.252	0.045	0.505	0.0187
74	Block-7	45	0.254	0.045	0.505	0.0186
75	Block-7	45	0.256	0.045	0.505	0.0184
76	Block-7	45	0.258	0.045	0.505	0.0182
77	Block-7	45	0.259	0.045	0.505	0.0183
78	Block-7	45	0.260	0.045	0.505	0.0191
79	Block-7	45	0.261	0.045	0.505	0.0192
80	Block-7	45	0.262	0.045	0.505	0.0194
81	Block-7	45	0.263	0.045	0.505	0.0195
82	Block-7	45	0.264	0.045	0.505	0.0195
83	Block-7	45	0.265	0.045	0.505	0.0197
84	Block-7	45	0.266	0.045	0.505	0.0197
85	Block-7	45	0.267	0.045	0.505	0.0198
86	Block-7	45	0.270	0.045	0.505	0.0199
87	Block-7	30	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0101
88	Block-7	35	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0107
89	Block-7	36	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0111
90	Block-7	37	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0116
91	Block-7	38	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0117
92	Block-7	39	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0119
93	Block-7	40	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0121
94	Block-7	41	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0127
95	Block-7	42	0.246	0.045	0.404	0.0154
96	Block-7	43	0.246	0.045	0.404	0.0157
97	Block-7	44	0.246	0.045	0.404	0.0162
98	Block-7	45	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0197
99	Block-7	50	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0221
100	Block-7	55	0.246	0.045	0.505	0.0233

In all these 100 simulations, the wave gauge was consistently positioned at coordinates X=1.09 m, Y=1.21 m, and Z=0.05 m. The dominant wave period for each simulation was determined using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) function in MATLAB (MathWorks, 2023). Furthermore, the classification of wave types was carried out using a wave categorization graph according to Sorensen (2010), as shown in Fig. 4a. The results indicate that the majority of the simulated waves are on the border between intermediate and deep-water waves, and they are categorized as Stokes waves (Fig. 4a). Four sample waveforms from our 100 numerical experiments are provided in Fig. 4b.

The dataset in Table 4 was used to derive a new predictive equation that incorporates travel distance for the first time to estimate the initial maximum tsunami amplitude. In developing this equation, a genetic algorithm optimization technique was implemented using MATLAB (MathWorks 2023). This advanced approach entailed the use of genetic algorithms (GAs), an evolutionary algorithm type inspired by natural selection processes (MathWorks, 2023). This technique is iterative, involving selection, crossover, and mutation processes to evolve solutions over several generations. The goal was to identify the optimal coefficients and powers for each landslide parameter in the predictive equation, ensuring a robust and reliable model for estimating maximum wave amplitudes. Genetic Algorithms excel at optimizing complex models by navigating through extensive combinations of coefficients and exponents. GAs effectively identify highly suitable solutions for the non-linear and complex relationships between inputs (e.g., slide volume, slope angle, travel distance, water depth) and the output (i.e., maximum initial wave amplitude, a_M). MATLAB’s computational environment enhances this process, providing robust tools for GA to adapt and evolve solutions iteratively, ensuring the precision of the predictive model (Onnen et al., 1997). This approach leverages MATLAB’s capabilities to fine-tune parameters dynamically, achieving an optimal equation that accurately estimates a_M. It is important to highlight that the nondimensionalized version of this dataset is employed to develop a predictive equation which enables the equation to reproduce the maximum initial wave amplitude (a_M) for various subaerial landslide cases, independent of their dimensional differences (e.g., Heler and Hager 2014; Heller and Spinneken 2015; Sabeti and Heidarzadeh 2022b). For this nondimensionalization, we employed the water depth (h) to nondimensionalize the slide volume (V/h³) and travel distance (D/h). The slide thickness (s) was applied to nondimensionalize the water depth (h/s).

2.5. Landslide velocity

In discussing the critical role of landslide velocity for simulating landslide-generated waves, we focus on the mechanisms of landslide motion and the techniques used to record landslide velocity in our simulations (Fig. 5). Also, we examine how these methods were applied in two distinct scenarios: Lab 1 and Lab 2 (see Table 1 for their details). Regarding the process of landslide movement, a slide starts from a stationary state, gaining momentum under the influence of gravity and this acceleration continues until the landslide collides with water, leading to a significant reduction in its speed before eventually coming to a stop (Fig. 5) (e.g., Panizzo et al. 2005).

To measure the landslide’s velocity in our simulations, we attached a probe at the centre of the slide, which supplied a time series of the velocity data. The slide’s velocity (v_s) peaks at the moment it enters the water (Fig. 5), a point referred to as the impact time (t_Imp). Following this initial impact, the slides continue their underwater movement, eventually coming to a complete halt (t_Stop). Given the results in Fig. 5, it can be seen that Lab 1, with its longer travel distance (0.070 m), exhibits a higher peak velocity of 1.89 m/s. This increase in velocity is attributed to the extended travel distance allowing more time for the slide to accelerate under gravity. Whereas Lab 2, featuring a shorter travel distance (0.045 m), records a lower peak velocity of 1.78 m/s. This difference underscores how travel distance significantly influences the dynamics of landslide motion. After reaching the peak, both profiles show a sharp decrease in velocity, marking the transition to submarine motion until the slides come to a complete stop (t_Stop). There are noticeable differences observable in Fig. 5 between the Lab-1 and Lab-2 simulations, including the peaks at 0.3 s . These variations might stem from the placement of the wave gauge, which differs slightly in each scenario, as well as the water depth’s minor discrepancies and, the travel distance.

2.6. Effect of air entrainment

In this section we examine whether it is required to consider air entrainment for our modelling or not as the FLOW-3D HYDRO package is capable of modelling air entrainment. The process of air entrainment in water during a landslide tsunami and its subsequent transport involve two key components: the quantification of air entrainment at the water surface, and the simulation of the air’s transport within the fluid (Hirt, 2003). FLOW-3D HYDRO employs the air entrainment model to compute the volume of air entrained at the water’s surface utilizing three approaches: a constant density model, a variable density model accounting for bulking, and a buoyancy model that adds the Drift-FLUX mechanism to variable density conditions (Flow Science, 2023). The calculation of the entrainment rate is based on the following equation:(2)��=��[2(��−��−2�/��)]1/2where parameters are: V_air, volume of air; C_air, entrainment rate coefficient; A_s, surface area of fluid; ρ, fluid density; k, turbulent kinetic energy; g_n, gravity normal to surface; L_t, turbulent length scale; and σ, surface tension coefficient. The value of k is directly computed from the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) (k–w) calculations in our model.

In this study, we selected the variable density + Drift-FLUX model, which effectively captures the dynamics of phase separation and automatically activates the constant density and variable density models. This method simplifies the air-water mixture, treating it as a single, homogeneous fluid within each computational cell. For the phase volume fractions f₁and f₂, the velocities are expressed in terms of the mixture and relative velocities, denoted as u and u_r, respectively, as follows:(3)��1��+�.(�1�)=��1��+�.(�1�)−�.(�1�2��)=0(4)��2��+�.(�2�)=��2��+�.(�2�)−�.(�1�2��)=0

The outcomes from this simulation are displayed in Fig. 6, which indicates that the influence of air entrainment on the generated wave amplitude is approximately 2 %. A value of 0.02 for the entrained air volume fraction means that, in the simulated fluid, approximately 2 % of the volume is composed of entrained air. In other words, for every unit volume of the fluid-air mixture at that location, 2 % is air and the remaining 98 % is water. The configuration of Test-17 (Table 4) was employed for this simulation. While the effect of air entrainment is anticipated to be more significant in models of granular landslide-generated waves (Fritz, 2002), in our simulations we opted not to incorporate this module due to its negligible impact on the results.

3. Results

In this section, we begin by presenting a sequence of our 3D simulations capturing different time steps to illustrate the generation process of landslide-generated waves. Subsequently, we derive a new predictive equation to estimate the maximum initial wave amplitude of landslide-generated waves and assess its performance.

3.1. Wave generation and propagation

To demonstrate the wave generation process in our simulation, we reference Test-17 from Table 4, where we employed Block-7 (Tables 3, 4). In this configuration, the slope angle was set to 45°, with a water depth of 0.246 m and a travel distance at 0.045 m (Fig. 7). At 0.220 s, the initial impact of the moving slide on the water is depicted, marking the onset of the wave generation process (Fig. 7a). Disturbances are localized to the immediate area of impact, with the rest of the water surface remaining undisturbed. At this time, a maximum water particle velocity of 1.0 m/s – 1.2 m/s is seen around the impact zone (Fig. 7d). Moving to 0.320 s, the development of the wave becomes apparent as energy transfer from the landslide to the water creates outwardly radiating waves with maximum water particle velocity of up to around 1.6 m/s – 1.8 m/s (Fig. 7b, e). By the time 0.670 s, the wave has fully developed and is propagating away from the impact point exhibiting maximum water particle velocity of up to 2.0 m/s – 2.1 m/s. Concentric wave fronts are visible, moving outwards in all directions, with a colour gradient signifying the highest wave amplitude near the point of landslide entry, diminishing with distance (Fig. 7c, f).

3.2. Influence of landslide parameters on tsunami amplitude

In this section, we investigate the effects of various landslide parameters namely slide volume (V), water depth (h), slipe angle (α) and travel distance (D) on the maximum initial wave amplitude (a_M). Fig. 8 presents the outcome of these analyses. According to Fig. 8, the slide volume, slope angle, and travel distance exhibit a direct relationship with the wave amplitude, meaning that as these parameters increase, so does the amplitude. Conversely, water depth is inversely related to the maximum initial wave amplitude, suggesting that the deeper the water depth, the smaller the maximum wave amplitude will be (Fig. 8b).

Fig. 8a highlights the pronounced impact of slide volume on the a_M, demonstrating a direct correlation between the two variables. For instance, in the range of slide volumes we modelled (Fig. 8a), The smallest slide volume tested, measuring 0.10 × 10⁻³ m³, generated a low initial wave amplitude (a_M= 0.0066 m) (Table 4). In contrast, the largest volume tested, 6.25 × 10⁻³ m³, resulted in a significantly higher initial wave amplitude (a_M= 0.0319 m) (Table 4). The extremities of these results emphasize the slide volume’s paramount impact on wave amplitude, further elucidated by their positions as the smallest and largest a_M values across all conducted tests (Table 4). This is corroborated by findings from the literature (e.g., Murty, 2003), which align with the observed trend in our simulations.

The slope angle’s influence on a_M was smooth. A steady increase of wave amplitude was observed as the slope angle increased (Fig. 8c). In examining travel distance, an anomaly was identified. At a travel distance of 0.047 m, there was an unexpected dip in a_M, which deviates from the general increasing trend associated with longer travel distances. This singular instance could potentially be attributed to a numerical error. Beyond this point, the expected pattern of increasing a_M with longer travel distances resumes, suggesting that the anomaly at 0.047 m is an outlier in an otherwise consistent trend, and thus this single data point was overlooked while deriving the predictive equation. Regarding the inverse relationship between water depth and wave amplitude, our result (Fig. 8b) is consistent with previous reports by Fritz et al. (2003), (2004), and Watts et al. (2005).

The insights from Fig. 8 informed the architecture of the predictive equation in the next Section, with slide volume, travel distance, and slope angle being multiplicatively linked to wave amplitude underscoring their direct correlations with wave amplitude. Conversely, water depth is incorporated as a divisor, representing its inverse relationship with wave amplitude. This structure encapsulates the dynamics between the landslide parameters and their influence on the maximum initial wave amplitude as discussed in more detail in the next Section.

3.3. Predictive equation

Building on our sensitivity analysis of landslide parameters, as detailed in Section 3.2, and utilizing our nondimensional dataset, we have derived a new predictive equation as follows:(5)��/ℎ=0.015(tan�)0.10(�ℎ3)0.90(�ℎ)0.10(ℎ�)−0.11where, V is sliding volume, h is water depth, α is slope angle, and s is landslide thickness. It is important to note that this equation is valid only for subaerial solid-block landslide tsunamis as all our experiments were for this type of waves. The performance of this equation in predicting simulation data is demonstrated by the satisfactory alignment of data points around a 45° line, indicating its accuracy and reliability with regard to the experimental dataset (Fig. 9). The quality of fit between the dataset and Eq. (5) is 91 % indicating that Eq. (5) represents the dataset very well. Table 5 presents Eq. (5) alongside four other similar equations previously published. Two significant distinctions between our Eq. (5) and these others are: (i) Eq. (5) is derived from 3D experiments, whereas the other four equations are based on 2D experiments. (ii) Unlike the other equations, our Eq. (5) incorporates travel distance as an independent parameter.

Table 5. Performance comparison among our newly-developed equation and existing equations for estimating the maximum initial amplitude (a_M) of the 2018 Anak Krakatau subaerial landslide tsunami. Parameters: a_M, initial maximum wave amplitude; h, water depth; v_s, landslide velocity; V, slide volume; b_s, slide width; l_s, slide length; s, slide thickness; α, slope angle; and ��, volume of the final immersed landslide. We considered ��= V as the slide volume.

Event	Predictive equations	Author (year)	Observed a_M (m) ^⁎⁎	Calculated a_M (m)	Error, ε (%) ^⁎⁎⁎⁎
2018 Anak Krakatau tsunami (Subaerial landslide) *	��/ℎ=1.32��ℎ	Noda (1970)	134	134	0
	��/ℎ=0.667(0.5(��ℎ)2)0.334(��)0.754(��)0.506(�ℎ)1.631	Bolin et al. (2014) ^⁎⁎⁎	134	5942	4334
	��/ℎ=0.25(��ℎ2)0.8	Robbe-Saule et al. (2021)	134	31	77
	��/ℎ=0.4545(tan�)0.062(�ℎ3)0.296(ℎ�)−0.235	Sabeti and Heidarzadeh (2022b)	134	126	6
	��/ℎ=0.015(tan�)0.10(�ℎ3)0.911(�ℎ)0.10(ℎ�)−0.11	This study	134	130	2.9

⁎

Geometrical and kinematic parameters of the 2018 Anak Krakatau subaerial landslide based on Heidarzadeh et al. (2020), Grilli et al. (2019) and Grilli et al. (2021): V=2.11 × 10⁷ m³, h= 50 m; s= 114 m; α= 45°; l_s=1250 m; b_s= 2700 m; v_s=44.9 m/s; D= 2500 m; a_M= 100 m −150 m.⁎⁎

a_M= An average value of a_M = 134 m is considered in this study.⁎⁎⁎

The equation of Bolin et al. (2014) is based on the reformatted one reported by Lindstrøm (2016).⁎⁎⁎⁎

Error is calculated using Eq. (1), where the calculated a_M is assumed as the simulated value.

Additionally, we evaluated the performance of this equation using the real-world data from the 2018 Anak Krakatau subaerial landslide tsunami. Based on previous studies (Heidarzadeh et al., 2020; Grilli et al., 2019, 2021), we were able to provide a list of parameters for the subaerial landslide and associated tsunami for the 2018 Anak Krakatau event (see footnote of Table 5). We note that the data of the 2018 Anak Krakatau event was not used while deriving Eq. (5). The results indicate that Eq. (5) predicts the initial amplitude of the 2018 Anak Krakatau tsunami as being 130 m indicating an error of 2.9 % compared to the reported average amplitude of 134 m for this event. This performance indicates an improvement compared to the previous equation reported by Sabeti and Heidarzadeh (2022a) (Table 5). In contrast, the equations from Robbe-Saule et al. (2021) and Bolin et al. (2014) demonstrate higher discrepancies of 4200 % and 77 %, respectively (Table 5). Although Noda’s (1970) equation reproduces the tsunami amplitude of 134 m accurately (Table 5), it is crucial to consider its limitations, notably not accounting for parameters such as slope angle and travel distance.

It is essential to recognize that both travel distance and slope angle significantly affect wave amplitude. In our model, captured in Eq. (5), we integrate the slope angle (α) through the tangent function, i.e., tan α. This choice diverges from traditional physical interpretations that often employ the cosine or sine function (e.g., Heller and Hager, 2014; Watts et al., 2003). We opted for the tangent function because it more effectively reflects the direct impact of slope steepness on wave generation, yielding superior estimations compared to conventional methods.

The significance of this study lies in its application of both physical and numerical 3D experiments and the derivation of a predictive equation based on 3D results. Prior research, e.g. Heller et al. (2016), has reported notable discrepancies between 2D and 3D wave amplitudes, highlighting the important role of 3D experiments. It is worth noting that the suitability of applying an equation derived from either 2D or 3D data depends on the specific geometry and characteristics inherent in the problem being addressed. For instance, in the case of a long, narrow dam reservoir, an equation derived from 2D data would likely be more suitable. In such contexts, the primary dynamics of interest such as flow patterns and potential wave propagation are predominantly two-dimensional, occurring along the length and depth of the reservoir. This simplification to 2D for narrow dam reservoirs allows for more accurate modelling of these dynamics.

This study specifically investigates waves initiated by landslides, focusing on those characterized as solid blocks instead of granular flows, with slope angles confined to a range of 25° to 60°. We acknowledge the additional complexities encountered in real-world scenarios, such as dynamic density and velocity of landslides, which could affect the estimations. The developed equation in this study is specifically designed to predict the maximum initial amplitude of tsunamis for the aforementioned specified ranges and types of landslides.

4. Conclusions

Both physical and numerical experiments were undertaken in a 3D wave basin to study solid-block landslide-generated waves and to formulate a predictive equation for their maximum initial wave amplitude. At the beginning, two physical experiments were performed to validate and calibrate a 3D numerical model, which was subsequently utilized to generate 100 experiments by varying different landslide parameters. The generated database was then used to derive a predictive equation for the maximum initial wave amplitude of landslide tsunamis. The main features and outcomes are:

•The predictive equation of this study is exclusively derived from 3D data and exhibits a fitting quality of 91 % when applied to the database.
•For the first time, landslide travel distance was considered in the predictive equation. This inclusion provides more accuracy and flexibility for applying the equation.
•To further evaluate the performance of the predictive equation, it was applied to a real-world subaerial landslide tsunami (i.e., the 2018 Anak Krakatau event) and delivered satisfactory performance.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ramtin Sabeti: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Software, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. Mohammad Heidarzadeh: Methodology, Data curation, Software, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Funding

RS is supported by the Leverhulme Trust Grant No. RPG-2022-306. MH is funded by open funding of State Key Lab of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, grant number SKHL2101. We acknowledge University of Bath Institutional Open Access Fund. MH is also funded by the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation grant no. 6217 (awarded in 2023).

Acknowledgements

Authors are sincerely grateful to the laboratory technician team, particularly Mr William Bazeley, at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Bath for their support during the laboratory physical modelling of this research. We appreciate the valuable insights provided by Mr. Brian Fox (Senior CFD Engineer at Flow Science, Inc.) regarding air entrainment modelling in FLOW-3D HYDRO. We acknowledge University of Bath Institutional Open Access Fund.

Data availability

All data used in this study are given in the body of the article.

References

Baptista et al., 2020M.A. Baptista, J.M. Miranda, R. Omira, I. El-HussainStudy of the 24 September 2013 Oman Sea tsunami using linear shallow water inversionArab. J. Geosci., 13 (14) (2020), p. 606View in Scopus Google Scholar
Bolin et al., 2014H. Bolin, Y. Yueping, C. Xiaoting, L. Guangning, W. Sichang, J. ZhibingExperimental modeling of tsunamis generated by subaerial landslides: two case studies of the Three Gorges Reservoir, ChinaEnviron. Earth Sci., 71 (2014), pp. 3813-3825View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Borrero et al., 2020J.C. Borrero, T. Solihuddin, H.M. Fritz, P.J. Lynett, G.S. Prasetya, V. Skanavis, S. Husrin, Kushendratno, W. Kongko, D.C. Istiyanto, A. DaulatField survey and numerical modelling of the December 22, 2018, Anak Krakatau TsunamiPure Appl. Geophys, 177 (2020), pp. 2457-2475View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Chen et al., 2020F. Chen, V. Heller, R. BrigantiNumerical modelling of tsunamis generated by iceberg calving validated with large-scale laboratory experimentsAdv. Water Resour., 142 (2020), Article 103647View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Courant et al., 1928R. Courant, K. Friedrichs, H. LewyÜber die partiellen Differenzengleichungen der mathematischen PhysikMath. Ann., 100 (1) (1928), pp. 32-74View in Scopus Google Scholar
Ersoy et al., 2019H. Ersoy, M. Karahan, K. Gelişli, A. Akgün, T. Anılan, M.O. Sünnetci, B.K. YahşiModelling of the landslide-induced impulse waves in the Artvin Dam reservoir by empirical approach and 3D numerical simulationEng. Geol., 249 (2019), pp. 112-128View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Flow Science 2023Flow Science. (2023). Flow-3D Hydro version 12.0 user’s manual. Santa Fe, NM, USA. Retrieved from https://www.flow3d.com/. 6 Aug 2023.Google Scholar
Fritz, 2002H.M. FritzDoctoral DissertationETH Zurich (2002)Google Scholar
Fritz et al., 2003H.M. Fritz, W.H. Hager, H.E. MinorLandslide generated impulse waves. 1. Instantaneous flow fieldsExp. Fluids, 35 (2003), pp. 505-519View in Scopus Google Scholar
Fritz et al., 2004H.M. Fritz, W.H. Hager, H.E. MinorNear field characteristics of landslide generated impulse wavesJ. Waterw. Port Coastal Ocean Eng., 130 (6) (2004), pp. 287-302View in Scopus Google Scholar
Geertsema et al., 2022M. Geertsema, B. Menounos, G. Bullard, J.L. Carrivick, J.J. Clague, C. Dai, D. Donati, G. Ekstrom, J.M. Jackson, P. Lynett, M. PichierriThe 28 Nov 2020 landslide, tsunami, and outburst flood – a hazard cascade associated with rapid deglaciation at Elliot Creek, BC, CanadaGeophys. Res. Lett., 49 (6) (2022)Google Scholar
Grilli et al., 2021S.T. Grilli, C. Zhang, J.T. Kirby, A.R. Grilli, D.R. Tappin, S.F.L. Watt, J.E. Hunt, A. Novellino, S. Engwell, M.E.M. Nurshal, M. AbdurrachmanModeling of the Dec. 22nd, 2018, Anak Krakatau volcano lateral collapse and tsunami based on recent field surveys: comparison with observed tsunami impactMar. Geol., 440 (2021), Article 106566View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Grilli et al., 2019S.T. Grilli, D.R. Tappin, S. Carey, S.F. Watt, S.N. Ward, A.R. Grilli, S.L. Engwell, C. Zhang, J.T. Kirby, L. Schambach, M. MuinModelling of the tsunami from the Dec. 22, 2018, lateral collapse of Anak Krakatau volcano in the Sunda Straits, IndonesiaSci. Rep., 9 (1) (2019), p. 11946 View at publisher This article is free to access.View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heidarzadeh et al., 2023M. Heidarzadeh, A.R. Gusman, I.E. MuliaThe landslide source of the eastern Mediterranean tsunami on 6 Feb 2023 following the Mw 7.8 Kahramanmaraş (Türkiye) inland earthquakeGeosci. Lett., 10 (1) (2023), p. 50 View at publisher This article is free to access.View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heidarzadeh et al., 2022M. Heidarzadeh, A.R. Gusman, A. Patria, B.T. WidyantoroPotential landslide origin of the Seram Island tsunami in Eastern Indonesia on 16 June 2021 following an Mw 5.9 earthquakeBull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 112 (5) (2022), pp. 2487-2498View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heidarzadeh et al., 2020M. Heidarzadeh, T. Ishibe, O. Sandanbata, A. Muhari, A.B. WijanartoNumerical modeling of the subaerial landslide source of the 22 Dec 2018 Anak Krakatoa volcanic tsunami, IndonesiaOcean. Eng., 195 (2020), Article 106733View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heidarzadeh et al., 2017M. Heidarzadeh, T. Harada, K. Satake, T. Ishibe, T. TakagawaTsunamis from strike-slip earthquakes in the Wharton Basin, northeast Indian Ocean: March 2016 M w7. 8 event and its relationship with the April 2012 M w 8.6 eventGeophys. J. Int., 211 (3) (2017), pp. 1601-1612, 10.1093/gji/ggx395 View at publisher This article is free to access.View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heller et al., 2008V. Heller, W.H. Hager, H.E. MinorScale effects in subaerial landslide generated impulse wavesExp. Fluids, 44 (2008), pp. 691-703View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heller and Hager, 2014V. Heller, W.H. HagerA universal parameter to predict subaerial landslide tsunamis?J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 2 (2) (2014), pp. 400-412View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heller and Spinneken, 2015V. Heller, J. SpinnekenOn the effect of the water body geometry on landslide–tsunamis: physical insight from laboratory tests and 2D to 3D wave parameter transformationCoastal Eng., 104 (2015), pp. 113-134View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Heller et al., 2016V. Heller, M. Bruggemann, J. Spinneken, B.D. RogersComposite modelling of subaerial landslide–tsunamis in different water body geometries and novel insight into slide and wave kinematicsCoastal Eng., 109 (2016), pp. 20-41View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Hirt, 2003C.W. HirtModeling Turbulent Entrainment of Air at a Free SurfaceFlow Science, Inc (2003)Google Scholar
Hu et al., 2023G. Hu, K. Satake, L. Li, P. DuOrigins of the tsunami following the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakeGeophys. Res. Lett., 50 (18) (2023)Google Scholar
Hu et al., 2022G. Hu, W. Feng, Y. Wang, L. Li, X. He, Ç. Karakaş, Y. TianSource characteristics and exacerbated tsunami hazard of the 2020 Mw 6.9 Samos earthquake in Eastern Aegean SeaJ. Geophys. Res., 127 (5) (2022)e2022JB023961Google Scholar
Iorio et al., 2021V. Iorio, G. Bellotti, C. Cecioni, S.T. GrilliA numerical model for the efficient simulation of multiple landslide-induced tsunamis scenariosOcean Model, 168 (2021), Article 101899View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Kestin et al., 1978J. Kestin, M. Sokolov, W.A. WakehamViscosity of liquid water in the range− 8 C to 150 CJPCRD, 7 (3) (1978), pp. 941-948View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Kim et al., 2020G.B. Kim, W. Cheng, R.C. Sunny, J.J. Horrillo, B.C. McFall, F. Mohammed, H.M. Fritz, J. Beget, Z. KowalikThree-dimensional landslide generated tsunamis: numerical and physical model comparisonsLandslides, 17 (2020), pp. 1145-1161View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Kirby et al., 2022J.T. Kirby, S.T. Grilli, J. Horrillo, P.L.F. Liu, D. Nicolsky, S. Abadie, B. Ataie-Ashtiani, M.J. Castro, L. Clous, C. Escalante, I. Fine, J.M. González-Vida, F. Løvholt, P. Lynett, G. Ma, J. Macías, S. Ortega, F. Shi, S. Yavari-Ramshe, C. ZhangValidation and inter-comparison of models for landslide tsunami generationOcean Model., 170 (2022), Article 101943View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Li et al., 2019G. Li, G. Chen, P. Li, H. JingEfficient and accurate 3-D numerical modelling of landslide tsunamiWater, 11 (10) (2019), p. 2033View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
MathWorks 2023MathWorksMATLAB User ManualThe MathWorks Inc., MA, USA (2023), p. 282Google Scholar
McFall and Fritz, 2016B.C. McFall, H.M. FritzPhysical modelling of tsunamis generated by three-dimensional deformable granular landslides on planar and conical island slopesProc. R. Soc. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., 472 (2188) (2016), Article 20160052View at publisher CrossRef Google Scholar
Mulia et al., 2020aI.E. Mulia, S. Watada, T.C. Ho, K. Satake, Y. Wang, A. AditiyaSimulation of the 2018 tsunami due to the flank failure of Anak Krakatau volcano and implication for future observing systemsGeophys. Res. Lett., 47 (14) (2020), Article e2020GL087334 View at publisher This article is free to access.View in Scopus Google Scholar
Murty, 2003T.S. MurtyTsunami wave height dependence on landslide volumePure Appl. Geophys., 160 (2003), pp. 2147-2153View in Scopus Google Scholar
Mulia et al., 2020bI.E. Mulia, S. Watada, T.C. Ho, K. Satake, Y. Wang, A. AditiyaSimulation of the 2018 tsunami due to the flank failure of Anak Krakatau volcano and implication for future observing systemsGeophys. Res. Lett., 47 (14) (2020)Google Scholar
Mulligan et al., 2020R.P. Mulligan, A. Franci, M.A. Celigueta, W.A. TakeSimulations of landslide wave generation and propagation using the particle finite element methodJ. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 125 (6) (2020)Google Scholar
Najafi-Jilani and Ataie-Ashtiani, 2008A. Najafi-Jilani, B. Ataie-AshtianiEstimation of near-field characteristics of tsunami generation by submarine landslideOcean Eng., 35 (5) (2008), pp. 545-557View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Onnen et al., 1997C. Onnen, R. Babuška, U. Kaymak, J.M. Sousa, H.B. Verbruggen, R. IsermannGenetic algorithms for optimization in predictive controlControl Eng. Pract, 5 (10) (1997), pp. 1363-1372View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Panizzo et al. 2005A. Panizzo, P. De Girolamo, M. Di Risio, A. Maistri, A. PetacciaGreat landslid event in Italian artificial reservoirsNat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 5 (5) (2005), pp. 733-740View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Ren et al., 2020Z. Ren, Y. Wang, P. Wang, J. Hou, Y. Gao, L. ZhaoNumerical study of the triggering mechanism of the 2018 Anak Krakatau tsunami: eruption or collapsed landslide?Nat. Hazards, 102 (2020), pp. 1-13View in Scopus Google Scholar
Robbe-Saule et al., 2021M. Robbe-Saule, C. Morize, Y. Bertho, A. Sauret, A. Hildenbrand, P. GondretFrom laboratory experiments to geophysical tsunamis generated by subaerial landslidesSci. Rep., 11 (1) (2021), pp. 1-9Google Scholar
Sabeti and Heidarzadeh, 2022aR. Sabeti, M. HeidarzadehNumerical simulations of water waves generated by subaerial granular and solid-block landslides: validation, comparison, and predictive equationsOcean Eng., 266 (2022), Article 112853View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Sabeti and Heidarzadeh, 2022bR. Sabeti, M. HeidarzadehA new empirical equation for predicting the maximum initial amplitude of submarine landslide-generated wavesLandslides, 19 (2) (2022), pp. 491-503 View at publisher This article is free to access.CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Sabeti et al. 2024R. Sabeti, M. Heidarzadeh, A. Romano, G. Barajas Ojeda, J.L. LaraThree-Dimensional Simulations of Subaerial Landslide-Generated Waves: Comparing OpenFOAM and FLOW-3D HYDRO ModelsPure Appl. Geophys. (2024), 10.1007/s00024-024-03443-x View at publisher This article is free to access.Google Scholar
Si et al., 2018P. Si, H. Shi, X. YuA general numerical model for surface waves generated by granular material intruding into a water bodyCoastal Eng., 142 (2018), pp. 42-51View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar
Sorensen, 2010R.M. SorensenBasic Coastal Engineering(3rd edition), Springer Science & Business Media (2010), p. 324Google Scholar
Syamsidik et al., 2020Benazir Syamsidik, M. Luthfi, A. Suppasri, L.K. ComfortThe 22 December 2018 Mount Anak Krakatau volcanogenic tsunami on Sunda Strait coasts, Indonesia: tsunami and damage characteristicsNat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20 (2) (2020), pp. 549-565View in Scopus Google Scholar
Synolakis et al., 2002C.E. Synolakis, J.P. Bardet, J.C. Borrero, H.L. Davies, E.A. Okal, E.A. Silver, D.R. TappinThe slump origin of the 1998 Papua New Guinea tsunamiProc. R. Soc. Lond. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., 45 (2002), pp. 763-789View in Scopus Google Scholar
Wang et al., 2022Y. Wang, H.Y. Su, Z. Ren, Y. MaSource properties and resonance characteristics of the tsunami generated by the 2021 M 8.2 Alaska earthquakeJ. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 127 (3) (2022), Article e2021JC018308 View at publisher This article is free to access.View in Scopus Google Scholar
Wang et al., 2021Y. Wang, M. Heidarzadeh, K. Satake, G. HuCharacteristics of two tsunamis generated by successive M w 7.4 and M w 8.1 earthquakes in Kermadec Islands on March 4, 2021Nat. Haz. Earth Sys. Sci., 22 (2021), pp. 1073-1082, 10.5194/nhess-22-1073-2022 View at publisher View in Scopus Google Scholar
Watts et al., 2005P. Watts, S.T. Grilli, D.R. Tappin, G.J. FryerTsunami generation by submarine mass failure. II: predictive equations and case studiesJ. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng., 131 (6) (2005), pp. 298-310View in Scopus Google Scholar
Watts et al., 2003P. Watts, S.T. Grilli, J.T. Kirby, G.J. Fryer, D.R. TappinLandslide tsunami case studies using a Boussinesq model and a fully nonlinear tsunami generation modelNat. Hazards Earth Sys. Sci., 3 (5) (2003), pp. 391-402View at publisher CrossRef View in Scopus Google Scholar
Watts, 1998P. WattsWavemaker curves for tsunamis generated by underwater landslidesJ. Waterw. Port. Coast. Ocean. Eng., 124 (3) (1998), pp. 127-137Google Scholar
Zhang et al., 2021C. Zhang, J.T. Kirby, F. Shi, G. Ma, S.T. GrilliA two-layer non-hydrostatic landslide model for tsunami generation on irregular bathymetry. 2. Numerical discretization and model validationOcean Model., 160 (2021), Article 101769View PDF View article View in Scopus Google Scholar

PDF 원문 보기

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE HYDRODYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS OF TORPEDO ANCHOR INSTALLATION UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS

魚雷錨擲錨過程受海流擲下之運移特性數值分析

번역된 기고 제목: 해류의 영향에 따른 어뢰 앵커 설치의 유체 역학 특성에 대한 수치 분석

Translated title of the contribution: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE HYDRODYNAMICS CHARACTERISTICS OF TORPEDO ANCHOR INSTALLATION UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS

L. Y. Chen, R. Y. Yang

Department of Hydraulic and Ocean Engineering

Abstract

The gravity-installed anchor (GIA) is a type of the anchor foundation that is installed by penetrating the seabed using the weight of the anchor body. It has the advantages of high installation efficiency, low cost, and no requirement of additional installation facilities. The GIA type used in this study is the torpedo anchor, which has been ap-plied in practical cases widely. The purpose of this study is to investigate the numerical analysis of the anchor trans-porting during the installation of the torpedo anchor under the action of ocean currents. Therefore, this article con-siders external environmental conditions and the different forms of torpedo anchors by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software, FLOW-3D, to simulate the fluid-solid interaction effect on the torpedo anchor. The falling time, impact velocity, displaced angle, and horizontal displacement of the torpedo anchor were observed at an installation height (i.e., the distance between the seabed and the anchor release height) of 85 meters. The obtained results show that when the current velocity is greater, the torpedo anchor will have a larger displaced angle, which will affect the impact velocity of the anchor on the seabed and may cause insufficient penetration depth, leading to installation failure.

중력설치형 앵커(GIA)는 앵커 본체의 무게를 이용하여 해저를 관통하여 설치하는 앵커 기초의 일종이다. 설치 효율성이 높고, 비용이 저렴하며, 추가 설치 시설이 필요하지 않다는 장점이 있습니다. 본 연구에서 사용된 GIA 유형은 어뢰앵커로 실제 사례에 널리 적용되어 왔다.

본 연구의 목적은 해류의 작용에 따라 어뢰앵커 설치 시 앵커 이송에 대한 수치해석을 연구하는 것이다. 따라서 이 기사에서는 어뢰 앵커에 대한 유체-고체 상호 작용 효과를 시뮬레이션하기 위해 전산유체역학(CFD) 소프트웨어인 FLOW-3D를 사용하여 외부 환경 조건과 다양한 형태의 어뢰 앵커를 고려합니다.

어뢰앵커의 낙하시간, 충격속도, 변위각, 수평변위 등은 설치높이(즉, 해저와 앵커 해제 높이 사이의 거리) 85m에서 관찰되었다. 얻은 결과는 현재 속도가 더 높을 때 어뢰 앵커의 변위 각도가 더 커져 해저에 대한 앵커의 충격 속도에 영향을 미치고 침투 깊이가 부족하여 설치 실패로 이어질 수 있음을 보여줍니다.

Ocean currentsEngineering & Materials Science100%
AnchorsEngineering & Materials Science74%
Numerical analysisEngineering & Materials Science63%
HydrodynamicsEngineering & Materials Science62%
GravitationEngineering & Materials Science9%
Computational fluid dynamicsEngineering & Materials Science4%
FluidsEngineering & Materials Science3%
CostsEngineering & Materials Science
해류
앵커
수치해석
유체 역학
중력
전산유체역학

원본 바로가기

Fig. 3. Free surface and substrate profiles in all Sp and Ls cases at t = 1 s, t = 3 s, and t = 5 s, arranged left to right (note: the colour contours correspond to the horizontal component of the flow velocity (u), expressed in m/s).

Numerical investigation of dam break flow over erodible beds with diverse substrate level variations

다양한 기질 수준 변화를 갖는 침식성 층 위의 댐 파손 흐름에 대한 수치 조사

Alireza Khoshkonesh¹, Blaise Nsom², Saeid Okhravi³*, Fariba Ahmadi Dehrashid⁴, Payam Heidarian⁵,
Silvia DiFrancesco⁶
¹Department of Geography, School of Social Sciences, History, and Philosophy, Birkbeck University of London, London, UK.
² Université de Bretagne Occidentale. IRDL/UBO UMR CNRS 6027. Rue de Kergoat, 29285 Brest, France.
³ Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84104, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
⁴Department of Water Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Bu-Ali Sina University, 65178-38695, Hamedan, Iran.
⁵Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
⁶Niccol`o Cusano University, via Don C. Gnocchi 3, 00166 Rome, Italy. * Corresponding author. Tel.: +421-944624921. E-mail: saeid.okhravi@savba.sk

Abstract

This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the influence of substrate level difference and material composition on dam break wave evolution over two different erodible beds. Utilizing the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method, we tracked free surface advection and reproduced wave evolution using experimental data from the literature. For model validation, a comprehensive sensitivity analysis encompassed mesh resolution, turbulence simulation methods, and bed load transport equations. The implementation of Large Eddy Simulation (LES), non-equilibrium sediment flux, and van Rijn’s (1984) bed load formula yielded higher accuracy compared to alternative approaches. The findings emphasize the significant effect of substrate level difference and material composition on dam break morphodynamic characteristics. Decreasing substrate level disparity led to reduced flow velocity, wavefront progression, free surface height, substrate erosion, and other pertinent parameters. Initial air entrapment proved substantial at the wavefront, illustrating pronounced air-water interaction along the bottom interface. The Shields parameter experienced a one-third reduction as substrate level difference quadrupled, with the highest near-bed concentration observed at the wavefront. This research provides fresh insights into the complex interplay of factors governing dam break wave propagation and morphological changes, advancing our comprehension of this intricate phenomenon.

이 연구는 두 개의 서로 다른 침식층에 대한 댐 파괴파 진화에 대한 기질 수준 차이와 재료 구성의 영향을 종합적으로 조사하는 것을 목표로 했습니다. VOF(유체량) 방법을 활용하여 자유 표면 이류를 추적하고 문헌의 실험 데이터를 사용하여 파동 진화를 재현했습니다.

모델 검증을 위해 메쉬 해상도, 난류 시뮬레이션 방법 및 침대 하중 전달 방정식을 포함하는 포괄적인 민감도 분석을 수행했습니다. LES(Large Eddy Simulation), 비평형 퇴적물 플럭스 및 van Rijn(1984)의 하상 부하 공식의 구현은 대체 접근 방식에 비해 더 높은 정확도를 산출했습니다.

연구 결과는 댐 붕괴 형태역학적 특성에 대한 기질 수준 차이와 재료 구성의 중요한 영향을 강조합니다. 기판 수준 차이가 감소하면 유속, 파면 진행, 자유 표면 높이, 기판 침식 및 기타 관련 매개변수가 감소했습니다.

초기 공기 포집은 파면에서 상당한 것으로 입증되었으며, 이는 바닥 경계면을 따라 뚜렷한 공기-물 상호 작용을 보여줍니다. 기판 레벨 차이가 4배로 증가함에 따라 Shields 매개변수는 1/3로 감소했으며, 파면에서 가장 높은 베드 근처 농도가 관찰되었습니다.

이 연구는 댐 파괴파 전파와 형태학적 변화를 지배하는 요인들의 복잡한 상호 작용에 대한 새로운 통찰력을 제공하여 이 복잡한 현상에 대한 이해를 향상시킵니다.

Keywords

Dam break; Substrate level difference; Erodible bed; Sediment transport; Computational fluid dynamics CFD.

PDF Download

REFERENCES

Aleixo, R., Soares-Frazão, S., Zech, Y., 2010. Velocity profiles in
dam-break flows: water and sediment layers. In: Proc. Int. Conf.
on Fluvial Hydraulics “River Flow 2010”, pp. 533–540.
An, S., Ku, H., Julien, P.Y., 2015. Numerical modelling of local
scour caused by submerged jets. Maejo Int. J. Sci. Technol., 9, 3,
328–343.
Bahmanpouri, F., Daliri, M., Khoshkonesh, A., Namin, M.M.,
Buccino, M., 2021. Bed compaction effect on dam break flow over
erodible bed; experimental and numerical modeling. J. Hydrol.,
594, 125645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125645
Baklanov, A., 2007. Environmental risk and assessment modelling
– scientific needs and expected advancements. In: Ebel, A.,
Davitashvili, T. (Eds.): Air, Water and Soil Quality Modelling
for Risk and Impact Assessment Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 29–44.
Biscarini, C., Di Francesco, S., Nardi, F., Manciola, P., 2013.
Detailed simulation of complex hydraulic problems with
macroscopic and mesoscopic mathematical methods. Math.
Probl. Eng., 928309. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/928309
Cao, Z., Pender, G., Wallis, S., Carling, P., 2004. Computational
dam-break hydraulics over erodible sediment bed. J. Hydraul.
Eng., 130, 7, 689–703.
Catucci, D., Briganti, R., Heller, V., 2021. Numerical validation of novel
scaling laws for air entrainment in water. Proc. R. Soc. A, 477, 2255,20210339. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2021.0339
Dehrashid, F.A., Heidari, M., Rahimi, H., Khoshkonesh, A., Yuan,
S., Tang, X., Lu, C., Wang, X., 2023. CFD modeling the flow
dynamics in an open channel with double-layered vegetation.
Model. Earth Syst. Environ., 9, 1, 543–555.
Desombre, J., Morichon, D., Mory, M., 2013. RANS v2-f simulation
of a swash event: Detailed flow structure. Coastal Eng., 71, 1–12.
Dodangeh, E., Afzalimehr, H., 2022. Incipient motion of sediment
particles in the presence of bed forms under decelerating and
accelerating flows. J. Hydrol. Hydromech., 70, 1, 89–102.
Dong, Z., Wang, J., Vetsch, D.F., Boes, R.M., Tan, G., 2019.
Numerical simulation of air entrainment on stepped
spillways. In: E-proceedings of the 38th IAHR World Congress
(pp. 1494). September 1–6, 2019, Panama City, Panama. DOI:
10.3850/38WC092019-0755
Flow3D [computer software]. 2023. Santa Fe, NM: Flow Science,
Inc.
Fraccarollo, L., Capart, H., 2002. Riemann wave description of
erosional dam-break flows. J. Fluid Mech., 461, 183–228.
Gu, Z., Wang, T., Meng, W., Yu, C.H., An, R., 2023. Numerical
investigation of silted-up dam-break flow with different silted-up
sediment heights. Water Supply, 23, 2, 599–614.
Gualtieri, P., De Felice, S., Pasquino, V., Doria, G.P., 2018. Use of
conventional flow resistance equations and a model for the
Nikuradse roughness in vegetated flows at high submergence. J.
Hydrol. Hydromech., 66, 1, 107–120.
Heller, V., 2011. Scale effects in physical hydraulic engineering
models. J. Hydraul. Res., 49, 3, 293–306.
Hirt, C.W., 2003. Modeling turbulent entrainment of air at a free
surface. Flow Science, Inc.
Hirt, C.W., Nichols, B.D., 1981. Volume of fluid (VOF) method for
the dynamics of free boundaries. J. Comput. Phys., 39, 1, 201–
225.
Issakhov, A., Zhandaulet, Y., Nogaeva, A., 2018. Numerical
simulation of dam break flow for various forms of the obstacle
by VOF method. Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 109, 191–206.
Khayyer, A., Gotoh, H., 2010. On particle-based simulation of a dam
break over a wet bed. J. Hydraul. Res., 48, 2, 238–249.
Khoshkonesh, A., Daliri, M., Riaz, K., Dehrashid, F.A.,
Bahmanpouri, F., Di Francesco, S., 2022. Dam-break flow
dynamics over a stepped channel with vegetation. J. Hydrol., 613,128395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128395
Khoshkonesh, A., Nsom, B., Gohari, S., Banejad, H., 2019.
A comprehensive study on dam-break flow over dry and wet
beds. Ocean Eng., 188, 106279.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.106279
Khoshkonesh, A., Sadeghi, S.H., Gohari, S., Karimpour, S., Oodi,
S., Di Francesco, S., 2023. Study of dam-break flow over a
vegetated channel with and without a drop. Water Resour.
Manage., 37, 5, 2107–2123.
Khosravi, K., Chegini, A.H.N., Cooper, J., Mao, L., Habibnejad, M.,
Shahedi, K., Binns, A., 2021. A laboratory investigation of bedload transport of gravel sediments under dam break flow. Int. J.
Sediment Res., 36, 2, 229–234.
Kim, Y., Zhou, Z., Hsu, T.J., Puleo, J.A., 2017. Large eddy
simulation of dam‐break‐driven swash on a rough‐planar beach.
J. Geophys. Res.: Oceans, 122, 2, 1274–1296.
Kocaman, S., Ozmen-Cagatay, H., 2012. The effect of lateral
channel contraction on dam break flows: Laboratory experiment.
J. Hydrol., 432, 145–153.
Leal, J.G., Ferreira, R.M., Cardoso, A.H., 2006. Dam-break wavefront celerity. J. Hydraul. Eng., 132, 1, 69–76.
Leal, J.G.A.B., Ferreira, R.M., Cardoso, A.H., 2003. Dam-break
wave propagation over a cohesionless erodible bed. In: Proc.
30rd IAHR Congress, 100, 261–268.
Li, Y. L., Ma, Y., Deng, R., Jiang, D.P., Hu, Z., 2019. Research on
dam-break induced tsunami bore acting on the triangular
breakwater based on high order 3D CLSVOF-THINC/WLICIBM approaching. Ocean Eng., 182, 645–659.
Li, Y.L., Yu, C.H., 2019. Research on dam-break flow induced front
wave impacting a vertical wall based on the CLSVOF and level
set methods. Ocean Eng., 178, 442–462.
Mei, S., Chen, S., Zhong, Q., Shan, Y., 2022. Detailed numerical
modeling for breach hydrograph and morphology evolution
during landslide dam breaching. Landslides, 19, 12, 2925–2949.
Meng, W., Yu, C.H., Li, J., An, R., 2022. Three-dimensional simulation
of silted-up dam-break flow striking a rigid structure. Ocean Eng.,
261, 112042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.112042
Meyer-Peter, E., Müller, R., 1948. Formulas for bed-load transport.
In: IAHSR 2nd meeting, Stockholm, appendix 2. IAHR.
Nielsen, P., 1984. Field measurements of time-averaged suspended
sediment concentrations under waves. Coastal Eng., 8, 1, 51–72.
Nielsen, P., 2018. Bed shear stress, surface shape and velocity field
near the tips of dam-breaks, tsunami and wave runup. Coastal
Eng., 138, 126–131.
Nsom, B., Latrache, N., Ramifidisoa, L., Khoshkonesh, A., 2019.
Analytical solution to the stability of gravity-driven stratified
flow of two liquids over an inclined plane. In: 24th French
Mechanics Congress in Brest. Brest, p. 244178.
Nsom, B., Ravelo, B., Ndong, W., 2008. Flow regimes in horizontal
viscous dam-break flow of Cayous mud. Appl. Rheol., 18, 4,
43577-1. https://doi.org/10.1515/arh-2008-0012
Oguzhan, S., Aksoy, A.O., 2020. Experimental investigation of the
effect of vegetation on dam break flood waves. J. Hydrol.
Hydromech., 68, 3, 231–241.
Okhravi, S., Gohari, S., Alemi, M., Maia, R., 2022. Effects of bedmaterial gradation on clear water scour at single and group of
piles. J. Hydrol. Hydromech., 70, 1, 114–127.
Okhravi, S., Gohari, S., Alemi, M., Maia, R., 2023. Numerical
modeling of local scour of non-uniform graded sediment for two
arrangements of pile groups. Int. J. Sediment Res., 38, 4, 597–614.
Parambath, A., 2010. Impact of tsunamis on near shore wind power
units. Master’s Thesis. Texas A&M University. Available
electronically from https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU2010-12-8919
Pintado-Patiño, J.C., Puleo, J.A., Krafft, D., Torres-Freyermuth, A.,

Hydrodynamics and sediment transport under a dambreak-driven swash: An experimental study. Coastal Eng., 170,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2021.103986
Riaz, K., Aslam, H.M.S., Yaseen, M.W., Ahmad, H.H.,
Khoshkonesh, A., Noshin, S., 2022. Flood frequency analysis
and hydraulic design of bridge at Mashan on river Kunhar. Arch.
Hydroengineering Environ. Mech., 69, 1, 1–12.
Ritter, A., 1892. Die Fortpflanzung der Wasserwellen. Zeitschrift
des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 36, 33, 947–954. (In
German.)
Smagorinsky, J., 1963. General circulation experiments with the
primitive equations: I. The basic experiment. Mon. Weather
Rev., 91, 3, 99–164.
Soulsby, R.L., 1997. Dynamics of marine sands: a manual for
practical applications. Oceanogr. Lit. Rev., 9, 44, 947.
Spinewine, B., Capart, H., 2013. Intense bed-load due to a sudden
dam-break. J. Fluid Mech., 731, 579–614.
Van Rijn, L.C., 1984. Sediment transport, part I: bed load transport.
J. Hydraul. Eng., 110, 10, 1431–1456.
Vosoughi, F., Rakhshandehroo, G., Nikoo, M.R., Sadegh, M.,
Experimental study and numerical verification of
silted-up dam break. J. Hydrol., 590, 125267.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125267
Wu, W., Wang, S.S., 2008. One-dimensional explicit finite-volume
model for sediment transport. J. Hydraul. Res., 46, 1, 87–98.
Xu, T., Huai, W., Liu, H., 2023. MPS-based simulation of
dam-break wave propagation over wet beds with a
sediment layer. Ocean Eng., 281, 115035.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.115035
Yang, S., Yang, W., Qin, S., Li, Q., Yang, B., 2018. Numerical study
on characteristics of dam-break wave. Ocean Eng., 159, 358–371.
Yao, G.F., 2004. Development of new pressure-velocity solvers in
FLOW-3D. Flow Science, Inc., USA.

PDF Download

Schematic diagram of HP-LPBF melting process.

Modeling and numerical studies of high-precision laser powder bed fusion

Yi Wei ;Genyu Chen;Nengru Tao;Wei Zhou
https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0191504

In order to comprehensively reveal the evolutionary dynamics of the molten pool and the state of motion of the fluid during the high-precision laser powder bed fusion (HP-LPBF) process, this study aims to deeply investigate the specific manifestations of the multiphase flow, solidification phenomena, and heat transfer during the process by means of numerical simulation methods. Numerical simulation models of SS316L single-layer HP-LPBF formation with single and double tracks were constructed using the discrete element method and the computational fluid dynamics method. The effects of various factors such as Marangoni convection, surface tension, vapor recoil, gravity, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and evaporative heat dissipation on the heat and mass transfer in the molten pool have been paid attention to during the model construction process. The results show that the molten pool exhibits a “comet” shape, in which the temperature gradient at the front end of the pool is significantly larger than that at the tail end, with the highest temperature gradient up to 1.69 × 10⁸ K/s. It is also found that the depth of the second track is larger than that of the first one, and the process parameter window has been determined preliminarily. In addition, the application of HP-LPBF technology helps to reduce the surface roughness and minimize the forming size.

Topics

Heat transfer, Nonequilibrium thermodynamics, Solidification process, Computer simulation, Discrete element method, Lasers, Mass transfer, Fluid mechanics, Computational fluid dynamics, Multiphase flows

PDF Download

I. INTRODUCTION

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) has become a research hotspot in the field of additive manufacturing of metals due to its advantages of high-dimensional accuracy, good surface quality, high density, and high material utilization.^1,2 With the rapid development of electronics, medical, automotive, biotechnology, energy, communication, and optics, the demand for microfabrication technology is increasing day by day.³ High-precision laser powder bed fusion (HP-LPBF) is one of the key manufacturing technologies for tiny parts in the fields of electronics, medical, automotive, biotechnology, energy, communication, and optics because of its process characteristics such as small focal spot diameter, small powder particle size, and thin powder layup layer thickness.^4–13 Compared with LPBF, HP-LPBF has the significant advantages of smaller focal spot diameter, smaller powder particle size, and thinner layer thickness. These advantages make HP-LPBF perform better in producing micro-fine parts, high surface quality, and parts with excellent mechanical properties.

HP-LPBF is in the exploratory stage, and researchers have already done some exploratory studies on the focal spot diameter, the amount of defocusing, and the powder particle size. In order to explore the influence of changing the laser focal spot diameter on the LPBF process characteristics of the law, Wildman et al.¹⁴ studied five groups of different focal spot diameter LPBF forming 316L stainless steel (SS316L) processing effect, the smallest focal spot diameter of 26 μm, and the results confirm that changing the focal spot diameter can be achieved to achieve the energy control, so as to control the quality of forming. Subsequently, Mclouth et al.¹⁵ proposed the laser out-of-focus amount (focal spot diameter) parameter, which characterizes the distance between the forming plane and the laser focal plane. The laser energy density was controlled by varying the defocusing amount while keeping the laser parameters constant. Sample preparation at different focal positions was investigated, and their microstructures were characterized. The results show that the samples at the focal plane have finer microstructure than those away from the focal plane, which is the effect of higher power density and smaller focal spot diameter. In order to explore the influence of changing the powder particle size on the characteristics of the LPBF process, Qian et al.¹⁶ carried out single-track scanning simulations on powder beds with average powder particle sizes of 70 and 40 μm, respectively, and the results showed that the melt tracks sizes were close to each other under the same process parameters for the two particle-size distributions and that the molten pool of powder beds with small particles was more elongated and the edges of the melt tracks were relatively flat. In order to explore the superiority of HP-LPBF technology, Xu et al.¹⁷ conducted a comparative analysis of HP-LPBF and conventional LPBF of SS316L. The results showed that the average surface roughness of the top surface after forming by HP-LPBF could reach 3.40 μm. Once again, it was verified that HP-LPBF had higher forming quality than conventional LPBF. On this basis, Wei et al.⁶ comparatively analyzed the effects of different laser focal spot diameters on different powder particle sizes formed by LPBF. The results showed that the smaller the laser focal spot diameter, the fewer the defects on the top and side surfaces. The above research results confirm that reducing the laser focal spot diameter can obtain higher energy density and thus better forming quality.

LPBF involves a variety of complex systems and mechanisms, and the final quality of the part is influenced by a large number of process parameters.^18–24 Some research results have shown that there are more than 50 factors affecting the quality of the specimen. The influencing factors are mainly categorized into three main groups: (1) laser parameters, (2) powder parameters, and (3) equipment parameters, which interact with each other to determine the final specimen quality. With the continuous development of technologies such as computational materials science and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the method of studying the influence of different factors on the forming quality of LPBF forming process has been shifted from time-consuming and laborious experimental characterization to the use of numerical simulation methods. As a result, more and more researchers are adopting this approach for their studies. Currently, numerical simulation studies on LPBF are mainly focused on the exploration of molten pool, temperature distribution, and residual stresses.

Finite element simulation based on continuum mechanics and free surface fluid flow modeling based on fluid dynamics are two common approaches to study the behavior of LPBF molten pool.^25–28 Finite element simulation focuses on the temperature and thermal stress fields, treats the powder bed as a continuum, and determines the molten pool size by plotting the elemental temperature above the melting point. In contrast, fluid dynamics modeling can simulate the 2D or 3D morphology of the metal powder pile and obtain the powder size and distribution by certain algorithms.²⁹ The flow in the molten pool is mainly affected by recoil pressure and the Marangoni effect. By simulating the molten pool formation, it is possible to predict defects, molten pool shape, and flow characteristics, as well as the effect of process parameters on the molten pool geometry.^30–34 In addition, other researchers have been conducted to optimize the laser processing parameters through different simulation methods and experimental data.^35–46 Crystal growth during solidification is studied to further understand the effect of laser parameters on dendritic morphology and solute segregation.^47–54 A multi-scale system has been developed to describe the fused deposition process during 3D printing, which is combined with the conductive heat transfer model and the dendritic solidification model.^55,56
Relevant scholars have adopted various different methods for simulation, such as sequential coupling theory,⁵⁷ Lagrangian and Eulerian thermal models,⁵⁸ birth–death element method,²⁵ and finite element method,⁵⁹ in order to reveal the physical phenomena of the laser melting process and optimize the process parameters. Luo et al.⁶⁰ compared the LPBF temperature field and molten pool under double ellipsoidal and Gaussian heat sources by ANSYS APDL and found that the diffusion of the laser energy in the powder significantly affects the molten pool size and the temperature field.
The thermal stresses obtained from the simulation correlate with the actual cracks,⁶¹ and local preheating can effectively reduce the residual stresses.⁶² A three-dimensional thermodynamic finite element model investigated the temperature and stress variations during laser-assisted fabrication and found that powder-to-solid conversion increases the temperature gradient, stresses, and warpage.⁶³ Other scholars have predicted residual stresses and part deflection for LPBF specimens and investigated the effects of deposition pattern, heat, laser power, and scanning strategy on residual stresses, noting that high-temperature gradients lead to higher residual stresses.^64–67

In short, the process of LPBF forming SS316L is extremely complex and usually involves drastic multi-scale physicochemical changes that will only take place on a very small scale. Existing literature employs DEM-based mesoscopic-scale numerical simulations to investigate the effects of process parameters on the molten pool dynamics of LPBF-formed SS316L. However, a few studies have been reported on the key mechanisms of heating and solidification, spatter, and convective behavior of the molten pool of HP-LPBF-formed SS316L with small laser focal spot diameters. In this paper, the geometrical properties of coarse and fine powder particles under three-dimensional conditions were first calculated using DEM. Then, numerical simulation models for single-track and double-track cases in the single-layer HP-LPBF forming SS316L process were developed at mesoscopic scale using the CFD method. The flow genesis of the melt in the single-track and double-track molten pools is discussed, and their 3D morphology and dimensional characteristics are discussed. In addition, the effects of laser process parameters, powder particle size, and laser focal spot diameter on the temperature field, characterization information, and defects in the molten pool are discussed.

II. MODELING

A. 3D powder bed modeling

HP-LPBF is an advanced processing technique for preparing target parts layer by layer stacking, the process of which involves repetitive spreading and melting of powders. In this process, both the powder spreading and the morphology of the powder bed are closely related to the results of the subsequent melting process, while the melted surface also affects the uniform distribution of the next layer of powder. For this reason, this chapter focuses on the modeling of the physical action during the powder spreading process and the theory of DEM to establish the numerical model of the powder bed, so as to lay a solid foundation for the accuracy of volume of fluid (VOF) and CFD.

1. DEM

DEM is a numerical technique for calculating the interaction of a large number of particles, which calculates the forces and motions of the spheres by considering each powder sphere as an independent unit. The motion of the powder particles follows the laws of classical Newtonian mechanics, including translational and rotational,^38,68–70 which are expressed as follows:��¨=��+∑��ij,

(1)��¨=∑�(�ij×�ij),

(2)

where �� is the mass of unit particle i in kg, ��¨ is the advective acceleration in m/s², And g is the gravitational acceleration in m/s². �ij is the force in contact with the neighboring particle � in N. �� is the rotational inertia of the unit particle � in kg · m². ��¨ is the unit particle � angular acceleration in rad/s². �ij is the vector pointing from unit particle � to the contact point of neighboring particle �⁠.

Equations (1) and (2) can be used to calculate the velocity and angular velocity variations of powder particles to determine their positions and velocities. A three-dimensional powder bed model of SS316L was developed using DEM. The powder particles are assumed to be perfect spheres, and the substrate and walls are assumed to be rigid. To describe the contact between the powder particles and between the particles and the substrate, a non-slip Hertz–Mindlin nonlinear spring-damping model⁷¹ was used with the following expression:�hz=��+��[(��ij−�eff��)−(��+�eff��)],

(3)

where �hz is the force calculated using the Hertzian in M. �� and �� are the radius of unit particles � and � in m, respectively. �� is the overlap size of the two powder particles in m. ��⁠, �� are the elastic constants in the normal and tangential directions, respectively. �ij is the unit vector connecting the centerlines of the two powder particles. �eff is the effective mass of the two powder particles in kg. �� and �� are the viscoelastic damping constants in the normal and tangential directions, respectively. �� and �� are the components of the relative velocities of the two powder particles. �� is the displacement vector between two spherical particles. The schematic diagram of overlapping powder particles is shown in Fig. 1.

FIG. 1.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of overlapping powder particles.

Because the particle size of the powder used for HP-LPBF is much smaller than 100 μm, the effect of van der Waals forces must be considered. Therefore, the cohesive force �jkr of the Hertz–Mindlin model was used instead of van der Waals forces,⁷² with the following expression:�jkr=−4��0�*�1.5+4�*3�*�3,

(4)1�*=(1−��2)��+(1−��2)��,

(5)1�*=1��+1��,

(6)

where �* is the equivalent Young’s modulus in GPa; �* is the equivalent particle radius in m; �0 is the surface energy of the powder particles in J/m²; α is the contact radius in m; �� and �� are the Young’s modulus of the unit particles � and �⁠, respectively, in GPa; and �� and �� are the Poisson’s ratio of the unit particles � and �⁠, respectively.

2. Model building

Figure 2 shows a 3D powder bed model generated using DEM with a coarse powder geometry of 1000 × 400 × 30 μm³. The powder layer thickness is 30 μm, and the powder bed porosity is 40%. The average particle size of this spherical powder is 31.7 μm and is normally distributed in the range of 15–53 μm. The geometry of the fine powder was 1000 × 400 × 20 μm³, with a layer thickness of 20 μm, and the powder bed porosity of 40%. The average particle size of this spherical powder is 11.5 μm and is normally distributed in the range of 5–25 μm. After the 3D powder bed model is generated, it needs to be imported into the CFD simulation software for calculation, and the imported geometric model is shown in Fig. 3. This geometric model is mainly composed of three parts: protective gas, powder bed, and substrate. Under the premise of ensuring the accuracy of the calculation, the mesh size is set to 3 μm, and the total number of coarse powder meshes is 1 704 940. The total number of fine powder meshes is 3 982 250.

FIG. 2.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Three-dimensional powder bed model: (a) coarse powder, (b) fine powder.

FIG. 3.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Geometric modeling of the powder bed computational domain: (a) coarse powder, (b) fine powder.

B. Modeling of fluid mechanics simulation

In order to solve the flow, melting, and solidification problems involved in HP-LPBF molten pool, the study must follow the three governing equations of conservation of mass, conservation of energy, and conservation of momentum.⁷³ The VOF method, which is the most widely used in fluid dynamics, is used to solve the molten pool dynamics model.

1. VOF

VOF is a method for tracking the free interface between the gas and liquid phases on the molten pool surface. The core idea of the method is to define a volume fraction function F within each grid, indicating the proportion of the grid space occupied by the material, 0 ≤ F ≤ 1 in Fig. 4. Specifically, when F = 0, the grid is empty and belongs to the gas-phase region; when F = 1, the grid is completely filled with material and belongs to the liquid-phase region; and when 0 < F < 1, the grid contains free surfaces and belongs to the mixed region. The direction normal to the free surface is the direction of the fastest change in the volume fraction F (the direction of the gradient of the volume fraction), and the direction of the gradient of the volume fraction can be calculated from the values of the volume fractions in the neighboring grids.⁷⁴ The equations controlling the VOF are expressed as follows:𝛻��+�⋅(��→)=0,

(7)

where t is the time in s and �→ is the liquid velocity in m/s.

FIG. 4.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of VOF.

The material parameters of the mixing zone are altered due to the inclusion of both the gas and liquid phases. Therefore, in order to represent the density of the mixing zone, the average density �¯ is used, which is expressed as follows:⁷²�¯=(1−�1)�gas+�1�metal,

(8)

where �1 is the proportion of liquid phase, �gas is the density of protective gas in kg/m³, and �metal is the density of metal in kg/m³.

2. Control equations and boundary conditions

Figure 5 is a schematic diagram of the HP-LPBF melting process. First, the laser light strikes a localized area of the material and rapidly heats up the area. Next, the energy absorbed in the region is diffused through a variety of pathways (heat conduction, heat convection, and surface radiation), and this process triggers complex phase transition phenomena (melting, evaporation, and solidification). In metals undergoing melting, the driving forces include surface tension and the Marangoni effect, recoil due to evaporation, and buoyancy due to gravity and uneven density. The above physical phenomena interact with each other and do not occur independently.

FIG. 5.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of HP-LPBF melting process.

Laser heat sourceThe Gaussian surface heat source model is used as the laser heat source model with the following expression:�=2�0��2exp(−2�12��2),(9)where � is the heat flow density in W/m², �0 is the absorption rate of SS316L, �� is the radius of the laser focal spot in m, and �1 is the radial distance from the center of the laser focal spot in m. The laser focal spot can be used for a wide range of applications.
Energy absorptionThe formula for calculating the laser absorption �0 of SS316L is as follows:�0=0.365(�0[1+�0(�−20)]/�)0.5,(10)where �0 is the direct current resistivity of SS316L at 20 °C in Ω m, �0 is the resistance temperature coefficient in ppm/°C, � is the temperature in °C, and � is the laser wavelength in m.
Heat transferThe basic principle of heat transfer is conservation of energy, which is expressed as follows:𝛻𝛻𝛻�(��)��+�·(��→�)=�·(�0��)+��,(11)where � is the density of liquid phase SS316L in kg/m³, �� is the specific heat capacity of SS316L in J/(kg K), 𝛻� is the gradient operator, t is the time in s, T is the temperature in K, 𝛻�� is the temperature gradient, �→ is the velocity vector, �0 is the coefficient of thermal conduction of SS316L in W/(m K), and �� is the thermal energy dissipation term in the molten pool.
Molten pool flowThe following three conditions need to be satisfied for the molten pool to flow:
- Conservation of mass with the following expression:𝛻�·(��→)=0.(12)
- Conservation of momentum (Navier–Stokes equation) with the following expression:𝛻𝛻𝛻𝛻��→��+�(�→·�)�→=�·[−pI+�(��→+(��→)�)]+�,(13)where � is the pressure in Pa exerted on the liquid phase SS316L microelement, � is the unit matrix, � is the fluid viscosity in N s/m², and � is the volumetric force (gravity, atmospheric pressure, surface tension, vapor recoil, and the Marangoni effect).
- Conservation of energy, see Eq. (11)
Surface tension and the Marangoni effectThe effect of temperature on the surface tension coefficient is considered and set as a linear relationship with the following expression:�=�0−��dT(�−��),(14)where � is the surface tension of the molten pool at temperature T in N/m, �� is the melting temperature of SS316L in K, �0 is the surface tension of the molten pool at temperature �� in Pa, and σdσ/ dT is the surface tension temperature coefficient in N/(m K).In general, surface tension decreases with increasing temperature. A temperature gradient causes a gradient in surface tension that drives the liquid to flow, known as the Marangoni effect.
Metal vapor recoilAt higher input energy densities, the maximum temperature of the molten pool surface reaches the evaporation temperature of the material, and a gasification recoil pressure occurs vertically downward toward the molten pool surface, which will be the dominant driving force for the molten pool flow.⁷⁵ The expression is as follows:��=0.54�� exp ��−��0��,(15)where �� is the gasification recoil pressure in Pa, �� is the ambient pressure in kPa, �� is the latent heat of evaporation in J/kg, �0 is the gas constant in J/(mol K), T is the surface temperature of the molten pool in K, and T_e is the evaporation temperature in K.
Solid–liquid–gas phase transitionWhen the laser hits the powder layer, the powder goes through three stages: heating, melting, and solidification. During the solidification phase, mutual transformations between solid, liquid, and gaseous states occur. At this point, the latent heat of phase transition absorbed or released during the phase transition needs to be considered.⁶⁸ The phase transition is represented based on the relationship between energy and temperature with the following expression:�=��,(�<��),�(��)+�−��−��,(��<�<��)�(��)+(�−��)��,(��<�),,(16)where �� and �� are solid and liquid phase density, respectively, of SS316L in kg/m³. �� and �� unit volume of solid and liquid phase-specific heat capacity, respectively, of SS316L in J/(kg K). �� and ��⁠, respectively, are the solidification temperature and melting temperature of SS316L in K. �� is the latent heat of the phase transition of SS316L melting in J/kg.

3. Assumptions

The CFD model was computed using the commercial software package FLOW-3D.⁷⁶ In order to simplify the calculation and solution process while ensuring the accuracy of the results, the model makes the following assumptions:

It is assumed that the effects of thermal stress and material solid-phase thermal expansion on the calculation results are negligible.
The molten pool flow is assumed to be a Newtonian incompressible laminar flow, while the effects of liquid thermal expansion and density on the results are neglected.
It is assumed that the surface tension can be simplified to an equivalent pressure acting on the free surface of the molten pool, and the effect of chemical composition on the results is negligible.
Neglecting the effect of the gas flow field on the molten pool.
The mass loss due to evaporation of the liquid metal is not considered.
The influence of the plasma effect of the molten metal on the calculation results is neglected.

It is worth noting that the formulation of assumptions requires a trade-off between accuracy and computational efficiency. In the above models, some physical phenomena that have a small effect or high difficulty on the calculation results are simplified or ignored. Such simplifications make numerical simulations more efficient and computationally tractable, while still yielding accurate results.

4. Initial conditions

The preheating temperature of the substrate was set to 393 K, at which time all materials were in the solid state and the flow rate was zero.

5. Material parameters

The material used is SS316L and the relevant parameters required for numerical simulations are shown in Table I.^46,77,78

TABLE I.

SS316L-related parameters.

Property	Symbol	Value
Density of solid metal (kg/m³)	�metal	7980
Solid phase line temperature (K)	��	1658
Liquid phase line temperature (K)	��	1723
Vaporization temperature (K)	��	3090
Latent heat of melting (⁠ J/kg⁠)	��	2.60×105
Latent heat of evaporation (⁠ J/kg⁠)	��	7.45×106
Surface tension of liquid phase (N /m⁠)	�	1.60
Liquid metal viscosity (kg/m s)	��	6×10−3
Gaseous metal viscosity (kg/m s)	�gas	1.85×10−5
Temperature coefficient of surface tension (N/m K)	��/�T	0.80×10−3
Molar mass (⁠ kg/mol⁠)	M	0.05 593
Emissivity	�	0.26
Laser absorption	�0	0.35
Ambient pressure (kPa)	��	101 325
Ambient temperature (K)	�0	300
Stefan–Boltzmann constant (W/m² K⁴)	�	5.67×10−8
Thermal conductivity of metals (⁠ W/m K⁠)	�	24.55
Density of protective gas (kg/m³)	�gas	1.25
Coefficient of thermal expansion (/K)	��	16×10−6
Generalized gas constant (⁠ J/mol K⁠)	R	8.314

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

With the objective of studying in depth the evolutionary patterns of single-track and double-track molten pool development, detailed observations were made for certain specific locations in the model, as shown in Fig. 6. In this figure, P1 and P2 represent the longitudinal tangents to the centers of the two melt tracks in the XZ plane, while L1 is the transverse profile in the YZ plane. The scanning direction is positive and negative along the X axis. Points A and B are the locations of the centers of the molten pool of the first and second melt tracks, respectively (x = 1.995 × 10⁻⁴, y = 5 × 10⁻⁷, and z = −4.85 × 10⁻⁵).

FIG. 6.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic diagram of observation position.

A. Single-track simulation

A series of single-track molten pool simulation experiments were carried out in order to investigate the influence law of laser power as well as scanning speed on the HP-LPBF process. Figure 7 demonstrates the evolution of the 3D morphology and temperature field of the single-track molten pool in the time period of 50–500 μs under a laser power of 100 W and a scanning speed of 800 mm/s. The powder bed is in the natural cooling state. When t = 50 μs, the powder is heated by the laser heat and rapidly melts and settles to form the initial molten pool. This process is accompanied by partial melting of the substrate and solidification together with the melted powder. The molten pool rapidly expands with increasing width, depth, length, and temperature, as shown in Fig. 7(a). When t = 150 μs, the molten pool expands more obviously, and the temperature starts to transfer to the surrounding area, forming a heat-affected zone. At this point, the width of the molten pool tends to stabilize, and the temperature in the center of the molten pool has reached its peak and remains largely stable. However, the phenomenon of molten pool spatter was also observed in this process, as shown in Fig. 7(b). As time advances, when t = 300 μs, solidification begins to occur at the tail of the molten pool, and tiny ripples are produced on the solidified surface. This is due to the fact that the melt flows toward the region with large temperature gradient under the influence of Marangoni convection and solidifies together with the melt at the end of the bath. At this point, the temperature gradient at the front of the bath is significantly larger than at the end. While the width of the molten pool was gradually reduced, the shape of the molten pool was gradually changed to a “comet” shape. In addition, a slight depression was observed at the top of the bath because the peak temperature at the surface of the bath reached the evaporation temperature, which resulted in a recoil pressure perpendicular to the surface of the bath downward, creating a depressed region. As the laser focal spot moves and is paired with the Marangoni convection of the melt, these recessed areas will be filled in as shown in Fig. 7(c). It has been shown that the depressed regions are the result of the coupled effect of Marangoni convection, recoil pressure, and surface tension.⁷⁹ By t = 500 μs, the width and height of the molten pool stabilize and show a “comet” shape in Fig. 7(d).

FIG. 7.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Single-track molten pool process: (a) t = 50 ��⁠, (b) t = 150 ��⁠, (c) t = 300 ��⁠, (d) t = 500 ��⁠.

Figure 8 depicts the velocity vector diagram of the P1 profile in a single-track molten pool, the length of the arrows represents the magnitude of the velocity, and the maximum velocity is about 2.36 m/s. When t = 50 μs, the molten pool takes shape, and the velocities at the two ends of the pool are the largest. The variation of the velocities at the front end is especially more significant in Fig. 8(a). As the time advances to t = 150 μs, the molten pool expands rapidly, in which the velocity at the tail increases and changes more significantly, while the velocity at the front is relatively small. At this stage, the melt moves backward from the center of the molten pool, which in turn expands the molten pool area. The melt at the back end of the molten pool center flows backward along the edge of the molten pool surface and then converges along the edge of the molten pool to the bottom center, rising to form a closed loop. Similarly, a similar closed loop is formed at the front end of the center of the bath, but with a shorter path. However, a large portion of the melt in the center of the closed loop formed at the front end of the bath is in a nearly stationary state. The main cause of this melt flow phenomenon is the effect of temperature gradient and surface tension (the Marangoni effect), as shown in Figs. 8(b) and 8(e). This dynamic behavior of the melt tends to form an “elliptical” pool. At t = 300 μs, the tendency of the above two melt flows to close the loop is more prominent and faster in Fig. 8(c). When t = 500 μs, the velocity vector of the molten pool shows a stable trend, and the closed loop of melt flow also remains stable. With the gradual laser focal spot movement, the melt is gradually solidified at its tail, and finally, a continuous and stable single track is formed in Fig. 8(d).

FIG. 8.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Vector plot of single-track molten pool velocity in XZ longitudinal section: (a) t = 50 ��⁠, (b) t = 150 ��⁠, (c) t = 300 ��⁠, (d) t = 500 ��⁠, (e) molten pool flow.

In order to explore in depth the transient evolution of the molten pool, the evolution of the single-track temperature field and the melt flow was monitored in the YZ cross section. Figure 9(a) shows the state of the powder bed at the initial moment. When t = 250 μs, the laser focal spot acts on the powder bed and the powder starts to melt and gradually collects in the molten pool. At this time, the substrate will also start to melt, and the melt flow mainly moves in the downward and outward directions and the velocity is maximum at the edges in Fig. 9(b). When t = 300 μs, the width and depth of the molten pool increase due to the recoil pressure. At this time, the melt flows more slowly at the center, but the direction of motion is still downward in Fig. 9(c). When t = 350 μs, the width and depth of the molten pool further increase, at which time the intensity of the melt flow reaches its peak and the direction of motion remains the same in Fig. 9(d). When t = 400 μs, the melt starts to move upward, and the surrounding powder or molten material gradually fills up, causing the surface of the molten pool to begin to flatten. At this time, the maximum velocity of the melt is at the center of the bath, while the velocity at the edge is close to zero, and the edge of the melt starts to solidify in Fig. 9(e). When t = 450 μs, the melt continues to move upward, forming a convex surface of the melt track. However, the melt movement slows down, as shown in Fig. 9(f). When t = 500 μs, the melt further moves upward and its speed gradually becomes smaller. At the same time, the melt solidifies further, as shown in Fig. 9(g). When t = 550 μs, the melt track is basically formed into a single track with a similar “mountain” shape. At this stage, the velocity is close to zero only at the center of the molten pool, and the flow behavior of the melt is poor in Fig. 9(h). At t = 600 μs, the melt stops moving and solidification is rapidly completed. Up to this point, a single track is formed in Fig. 9(i). During the laser action on the powder bed, the substrate melts and combines with the molten state powder. The powder-to-powder fusion is like the convergence of water droplets, which are rapidly fused by surface tension. However, the fusion between the molten state powder and the substrate occurs driven by surface tension, and the molten powder around the molten pool is pulled toward the substrate (a wetting effect occurs), which ultimately results in the formation of a monolithic whole.^38,80,81

FIG. 9.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Evolution of single-track molten pool temperature and melt flow in the YZ cross section: (a) t = 0 ��⁠, (b) t = 250 ��⁠, (c) t = 300 ��⁠, (d) t = 350 ��⁠, (e) t = 400 ��⁠, (f) t = 450 ��⁠, (g) t = 500 ��⁠, (h) t = 550 ��⁠, (i) t = 600 ��⁠.

The wetting ability between the liquid metal and the solid substrate in the molten pool directly affects the degree of balling of the melt,^82,83 and the wetting ability can be measured by the contact angle of a single track in Fig. 10. A smaller value of contact angle represents better wettability. The contact angle α can be calculated by�=�1−�22,

(17)

where �1 and �2 are the contact angles of the left and right regions, respectively.

FIG. 10.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Schematic of contact angle.

Relevant studies have confirmed that the wettability is better at a contact angle α around or below 40°.⁸⁴ After measurement, a single-track contact angle α of about 33° was obtained under this process parameter, which further confirms the good wettability.

B. Double-track simulation

In order to deeply investigate the influence of hatch spacing on the characteristics of the HP-LPBF process, a series of double-track molten pool simulation experiments were systematically carried out. Figure 11 shows in detail the dynamic changes of the 3D morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool in the time period of 2050–2500 μs under the conditions of laser power of 100 W, scanning speed of 800 mm/s, and hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. By comparing the study with Fig. 7, it is observed that the basic characteristics of the 3D morphology and temperature field of the second track are similar to those of the first track. However, there are subtle differences between them. The first track exhibits a basically symmetric shape, but the second track morphology shows a slight deviation influenced by the difference in thermal diffusion rate between the solidified metal and the powder. Otherwise, the other characteristic information is almost the same as that of the first track. Figure 12 shows the velocity vector plot of the P2 profile in the double-track molten pool, with a maximum velocity of about 2.63 m/s. The melt dynamics at both ends of the pool are more stable at t = 2050 μs, where the maximum rate of the second track is only 1/3 of that of the first one. Other than that, the rest of the information is almost no significant difference from the characteristic information of the first track. Figure 13 demonstrates a detailed observation of the double-track temperature field and melts flow in the YZ cross section, and a comparative study with Fig. 9 reveals that the width of the second track is slightly wider. In addition, after the melt direction shifts from bottom to top, the first track undergoes four time periods (50 μs) to reach full solidification, while the second track takes five time periods. This is due to the presence of significant heat buildup in the powder bed after the forming of the first track, resulting in a longer dynamic time of the melt and an increased molten pool lifetime. In conclusion, the level of specimen forming can be significantly optimized by adjusting the laser power and hatch spacing.

FIG. 11.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Double-track molten pool process: (a) t = 2050 ��⁠, (b) t = 2150 ��⁠, (c) t = 2300 ��⁠, (d) t = 2500 ��⁠.

FIG. 12.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Vector plot of double-track molten pool velocity in XZ longitudinal section: (a) t = 2050 ��⁠, (b) t = 2150 ��⁠, (c) t = 2300 ��⁠, (d) t = 2500 ��⁠.

FIG. 13.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Evolution of double-track molten pool temperature and melt flow in the YZ cross section: (a) t = 2250 ��⁠, (b) t = 2300 ��⁠, (c) t = 2350 ��⁠, (d) t = 2400 ��⁠, (e) t = 2450 ��⁠, (f) t = 2500 ��⁠, (g) t = 2550 ��⁠, (h) t = 2600 ��⁠, (i) t = 2650 ��⁠.

In order to quantitatively detect the molten pool dimensions as well as the remolten region dimensions, the molten pool characterization information in Fig. 14 is constructed by drawing the boundary on the YZ cross section based on the isothermal surface of the liquid phase line. It can be observed that the heights of the first track and second track are basically the same, but the depth of the second track increases relative to the first track. The molten pool width is mainly positively correlated with the laser power as well as the scanning speed (the laser line energy density �⁠). However, the remelted zone width is negatively correlated with the hatch spacing (the overlapping ratio). Overall, the forming quality of the specimens can be directly influenced by adjusting the laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing.

FIG. 14.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Double-track molten pool characterization information on YZ cross section.

In order to study the variation rule of the temperature in the center of the molten pool with time, Fig. 15 demonstrates the temperature variation curves with time for two reference points, A and B. Among them, the red dotted line indicates the liquid phase line temperature of SS316L. From the figure, it can be seen that the maximum temperature at the center of the molten pool in the first track is lower than that in the second track, which is mainly due to the heat accumulation generated after passing through the first track. The maximum temperature gradient was calculated to be 1.69 × 10⁸ K/s. When the laser scanned the first track, the temperature in the center of the molten pool of the second track increased slightly. Similarly, when the laser scanned the second track, a similar situation existed in the first track. Since the temperature gradient in the second track is larger than that in the first track, the residence time of the liquid phase in the molten pool of the first track is longer than that of the second track.

FIG. 15.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Temperature profiles as a function of time for two reference points A and B.

C. Simulation analysis of molten pool under different process parameters

In order to deeply investigate the effects of various process parameters on the mesoscopic-scale temperature field, molten pool characteristic information and defects of HP-LPBF, numerical simulation experiments on mesoscopic-scale laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing of double-track molten pools were carried out.

1. Laser power

Figure 16 shows the effects of different laser power on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool at a scanning speed of 800 mm/s and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. When P = 50 W, a smaller molten pool is formed due to the lower heat generated by the Gaussian light source per unit time. This leads to a smaller track width, which results in adjacent track not lapping properly and the presence of a large number of unmelted powder particles, resulting in an increase in the number of defects, such as pores in the specimen. The surface of the track is relatively flat, and the depth is small. In addition, the temperature gradient before and after the molten pool was large, and the depression location appeared at the biased front end in Fig. 16(a). When P = 100 W, the surface of the track is flat and smooth with excellent lap. Due to the Marangoni effect, the velocity field of the molten pool is in the form of “vortex,” and the melt has good fluidity, and the maximum velocity reaches 2.15 m/s in Fig. 16(b). When P = 200 W, the heat generated by the Gaussian light source per unit time is too large, resulting in the melt rapidly reaching the evaporation temperature, generating a huge recoil pressure, forming a large molten pool, and the surface of the track is obviously raised. The melt movement is intense, especially the closed loop at the center end of the molten pool. At this time, the depth and width of the molten pool are large, leading to the expansion of the remolten region and the increased chance of the appearance of porosity defects in Fig. 16(c). The results show that at low laser power, the surface tension in the molten pool is dominant. At high laser power, recoil pressure is its main role.

FIG. 16.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool under different laser powers: (a) P = 50 W, (b) P = 100 W, (c) P = 200 W.

Table II shows the effect of different laser powers on the characteristic information of the double-track molten pool at a scanning speed of 800 mm/s and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. The negative overlapping ratio in the table indicates that the melt tracks are not lapped, and 26/29 indicates the melt depth of the first track/second track. It can be seen that with the increase in laser power, the melt depth, melt width, melt height, and remelted zone show a gradual increase. At the same time, the overlapping ratio also increases. Especially in the process of laser power from 50 to 200 W, the melting depth and melting width increased the most, which increased nearly 2 and 1.5 times, respectively. Meanwhile, the overlapping ratio also increases with the increase in laser power, which indicates that the melting and fusion of materials are better at high laser power. On the other hand, the dimensions of the molten pool did not change uniformly with the change of laser power. Specifically, the depth-to-width ratio of the molten pool increased from about 0.30 to 0.39 during the increase from 50 to 120 W, which further indicates that the effective heat transfer in the vertical direction is greater than that in the horizontal direction with the increase in laser power. This dimensional response to laser power is mainly affected by the recoil pressure and also by the difference in the densification degree between the powder layer and the metal substrate. In addition, according to the experimental results, the contact angle shows a tendency to increase and then decrease during the process of laser power increase, and always stays within the range of less than 33°. Therefore, in practical applications, it is necessary to select the appropriate laser power according to the specific needs in order to achieve the best processing results.

TABLE II.

Double-track molten pool characterization information at different laser powers.

Laser power (W)	Depth (μm)	Width (μm)	Height (μm)	Remolten region (μm)	Overlapping ratio (%)	Contact angle (°)
50	16	54	11	/	−10	23
100	26/29	74	14	18	23.33	33
200	37/45	116	21	52	93.33	28

2. Scanning speed

Figure 17 demonstrates the effect of different scanning speeds on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool at a laser power of 100 W and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. With the gradual increase in scanning speed, the surface morphology of the molten pool evolves from circular to elliptical. When � = 200 mm/s, the slow scanning speed causes the material to absorb too much heat, which is very easy to trigger the overburning phenomenon. At this point, the molten pool is larger and the surface morphology is uneven. This situation is consistent with the previously discussed scenario with high laser power in Fig. 17(a). However, when � = 1600 mm/s, the scanning speed is too fast, resulting in the material not being able to absorb sufficient heat, which triggers the powder particles that fail to melt completely to have a direct effect on the bonding of the melt to the substrate. At this time, the molten pool volume is relatively small and the neighboring melt track cannot lap properly. This result is consistent with the previously discussed case of low laser power in Fig. 17(b). Overall, the ratio of the laser power to the scanning speed (the line energy density �⁠) has a direct effect on the temperature field and surface morphology of the molten pool.

FIG. 17.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool under different scanning speed: (a) � = 200 mm/s, (b) � = 1600 mm/s.

Table III shows the effects of different scanning speed on the characteristic information of the double-track molten pool under the condition of laser power of 100 W and hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. It can be seen that the scanning speed has a significant effect on the melt depth, melt width, melt height, remolten region, and overlapping ratio. With the increase in scanning speed, the melt depth, melt width, melt height, remelted zone, and overlapping ratio show a gradual decreasing trend. Among them, the melt depth and melt width decreased faster, while the melt height and remolten region decreased relatively slowly. In addition, when the scanning speed was increased from 200 to 800 mm/s, the decreasing speeds of melt depth and melt width were significantly accelerated, while the decreasing speeds of overlapping ratio were relatively slow. When the scanning speed was further increased to 1600 mm/s, the decreasing speeds of melt depth and melt width were further accelerated, and the un-lapped condition of the melt channel also appeared. In addition, the contact angle increases and then decreases with the scanning speed, and both are lower than 33°. Therefore, when selecting the scanning speed, it is necessary to make reasonable trade-offs according to the specific situation, and take into account the factors of melt depth, melt width, melt height, remolten region, and overlapping ratio, in order to achieve the best processing results.

TABLE III.

Double-track molten pool characterization information at different scanning speeds.

Scanning speed (mm/s)	Depth (μm)	Width (μm)	Height (μm)	Remolten region (μm)	Overlapping ratio (%)	Contact angle (°)
200	55/68	182	19/32	124	203.33	22
1600	13	50	11	/	−16.67	31

3. Hatch spacing

Figure 18 shows the effect of different hatch spacing on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool under the condition of laser power of 100 W and scanning speed of 800 mm/s. The surface morphology and temperature field of the first track and second track are basically the same, but slightly different. The first track shows a basically symmetric morphology along the scanning direction, while the second track shows a slight offset due to the difference in the heat transfer rate between the solidified material and the powder particles. When the hatch spacing is too small, the overlapping ratio increases and the probability of defects caused by remelting phenomenon grows. When the hatch spacing is too large, the neighboring melt track cannot overlap properly, and the powder particles are not completely melted, leading to an increase in the number of holes. In conclusion, the ratio of the line energy density � to the hatch spacing (the volume energy density E) has a significant effect on the temperature field and surface morphology of the molten pool.

FIG. 18.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool under different hatch spacings: (a) H = 0.03 mm, (b) H = 0.12 mm.

Table IV shows the effects of different hatch spacing on the characteristic information of the double-track molten pool under the condition of laser power of 100 W and scanning speed of 800 mm/s. It can be seen that the hatch spacing has little effect on the melt depth, melt width, and melt height, but has some effect on the remolten region. With the gradual expansion of hatch spacing, the remolten region shows a gradual decrease. At the same time, the overlapping ratio also decreased with the increase in hatch spacing. In addition, it is observed that the contact angle shows a tendency to increase and then remain stable when the hatch spacing increases, which has a more limited effect on it. Therefore, trade-offs and decisions need to be made on a case-by-case basis when selecting the hatch spacing.

TABLE IV.

Double-track molten pool characterization information at different hatch spacings.

Hatch spacing (mm)	Depth (μm)	Width (μm)	Height (μm)	Remolten region (μm)	Overlapping ratio (%)	Contact angle (°)
0.03	25/27	82	14	59	173.33	30
0.12	26	78	14	/	−35	33

In summary, the laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing have a significant effect on the formation of the molten pool, and the correct selection of these three process parameters is crucial to ensure the forming quality. In addition, the melt depth of the second track is slightly larger than that of the first track at higher line energy density � and volume energy density E. This is mainly due to the fact that a large amount of heat accumulation is generated after the first track, forming a larger molten pool volume, which leads to an increase in the melt depth.

D. Simulation analysis of molten pool with powder particle size and laser focal spot diameter

Figure 19 demonstrates the effect of different powder particle sizes and laser focal spot diameters on the morphology and temperature field of the double-track molten pool under a laser power of 100 W, a scanning speed of 800 mm/s, and a hatch spacing of 0.06 mm. In the process of melting coarse powder with small laser focal spot diameter, the laser energy cannot completely melt the larger powder particles, resulting in their partial melting and further generating excessive pore defects. The larger powder particles tend to generate zigzag molten pool edges, which cause an increase in the roughness of the melt track surface. In addition, the molten pool is also prone to generate the present spatter phenomenon, which can directly affect the quality of forming. The volume of the formed molten pool is relatively small, while the melt depth, melt width, and melt height are all smaller relative to the fine powder in Fig. 19(a). In the process of melting fine powders with a large laser focal spot diameter, the laser energy is able to melt the fine powder particles sufficiently, even to the point of overmelting. This results in a large number of fine spatters being generated at the edge of the molten pool, which causes porosity defects in the melt track in Fig. 19(b). In addition, the maximum velocity of the molten pool is larger for large powder particle sizes compared to small powder particle sizes, which indicates that the temperature gradient in the molten pool is larger for large powder particle sizes and the melt motion is more intense. However, the size of the laser focal spot diameter has a relatively small effect on the melt motion. However, a larger focal spot diameter induces a larger melt volume with greater depth, width, and height. In conclusion, a small powder size helps to reduce the surface roughness of the specimen, and a small laser spot diameter reduces the minimum forming size of a single track.

FIG. 19.

VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Simulation results of double-track molten pool with different powder particle size and laser focal spot diameter: (a) focal spot = 25 μm, coarse powder, (b) focal spot = 80 μm, fine powder.

Table V shows the maximum temperature gradient at the reference point for different powder sizes and laser focal spot diameters. As can be seen from the table, the maximum temperature gradient is lower than that of HP-LPBF for both coarse powders with a small laser spot diameter and fine powders with a large spot diameter, a phenomenon that leads to an increase in the heat transfer rate of HP-LPBF, which in turn leads to a corresponding increase in the cooling rate and, ultimately, to the formation of finer microstructures.

TABLE V.

Maximum temperature gradient at the reference point for different powder particle sizes and laser focal spot diameters.

Laser power (W)	Scanning speed (mm/s)	Hatch spacing (mm)	Average powder size (μm)	Laser focal spot diameter (μm)	Maximum temperature gradient (×10⁷ K/s)
100	800	0.06	31.7	25	7.89
100	800	0.06	11.5	80	7.11

IV. CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the geometrical characteristics of 3D coarse and fine powder particles were first calculated using DEM and then numerical simulations of single track and double track in the process of forming SS316L from monolayer HP-LPBF at mesoscopic scale were developed using CFD method. The effects of Marangoni convection, surface tension, recoil pressure, gravity, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and evaporative heat dissipation on the heat and mass transfer in the molten pool were considered in this model. The effects of laser power, scanning speed, and hatch spacing on the dynamics of the single-track and double-track molten pools, as well as on other characteristic information, were investigated. The effects of the powder particle size on the molten pool were investigated comparatively with the laser focal spot diameter. The main conclusions are as follows:

The results show that the temperature gradient at the front of the molten pool is significantly larger than that at the tail, and the molten pool exhibits a “comet” morphology. At the top of the molten pool, there is a slightly concave region, which is the result of the coupling of Marangoni convection, recoil pressure, and surface tension. The melt flow forms two closed loops, which are mainly influenced by temperature gradients and surface tension. This special dynamic behavior of the melt tends to form an “elliptical” molten pool and an almost “mountain” shape in single-track forming.
The basic characteristics of the three-dimensional morphology and temperature field of the second track are similar to those of the first track, but there are subtle differences. The first track exhibits a basically symmetrical shape; however, due to the difference in thermal diffusion rates between the solidified metal and the powder, a slight asymmetry in the molten pool morphology of the second track occurs. After forming through the first track, there is a significant heat buildup in the powder bed, resulting in a longer dynamic time of the melt, which increases the life of the molten pool. The heights of the first track and second track remained essentially the same, but the depth of the second track was greater relative to the first track. In addition, the maximum temperature gradient was 1.69 × 10⁸ K/s during HP-LPBF forming.
At low laser power, the surface tension in the molten pool plays a dominant role. At high laser power, recoil pressure becomes the main influencing factor. With the increase of laser power, the effective heat transfer in the vertical direction is superior to that in the horizontal direction. With the gradual increase of scanning speed, the surface morphology of the molten pool evolves from circular to elliptical. In addition, the scanning speed has a significant effect on the melt depth, melt width, melt height, remolten region, and overlapping ratio. Too large or too small hatch spacing will lead to remelting or non-lap phenomenon, which in turn causes the formation of defects.
When using a small laser focal spot diameter, it is difficult to completely melt large powder particle sizes, resulting in partial melting and excessive porosity generation. At the same time, large powder particles produce curved edges of the molten pool, resulting in increased surface roughness of the melt track. In addition, spatter occurs, which directly affects the forming quality. At small focal spot diameters, the molten pool volume is relatively small, and the melt depth, the melt width, and the melt height are correspondingly small. Taken together, the small powder particle size helps to reduce surface roughness, while the small spot diameter reduces the forming size.

REFERENCES

S. L. Sing and W. Y. Yeong , “ Laser powder bed fusion for metal additive manufacturing: Perspectives on recent developments,” Virtual Phys. Prototyping. 15, 359–370 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2020.1779999
Google ScholarCrossref
A. M. Khorasani , I. G. Jithin , J. K. Veetil , and A. H. Ghasemi , “ A review of technological improvements in laser-based powder bed fusion of metal printers,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 108, 191–209 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-05361-3
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Qin , A. Brockett , Y. Ma , A. Razali , J. Zhao , C. Harrison , W. Pan , X. Dai , and D. Loziak , “ Micro-manufacturing: Research, technology outcomes and development issues,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 47, 821–837 (2010).https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-009-2411-2
Google ScholarCrossref
B. Nagarajan , Z. Hu , X. Song , W. Zhai , and J. Wei , “ Development of micro selective laser melting: The state of the art and future perspectives,” Engineering. 5, 702–720 (2019).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2019.07.002
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Wei , G. Chen , W. Li , Y. Zhou , Z. Nie , J. Xu , and W. Zhou , “ Micro selective laser melting of SS316L: Single tracks, defects, microstructures and thermal/mechanical properties,” Opt. Laser Technol. 145, 107469 (2022).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107469
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Wei , G. Chen , W. Li , M. Li , Y. Zhou , Z. Nie , and J. Xu , “ Process optimization of micro selective laser melting and comparison of different laser diameter for forming different powder,” Opt. Laser Technol. 150, 107953 (2022).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.107953
Google ScholarCrossref
H. Zhiheng , B. Nagarajan , X. Song , R. Huang , W. Zhai , and J. Wei , “ Formation of SS316L single tracks in micro selective laser melting: Surface, geometry, and defects,” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 9451406.https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/9451406
Crossref
B. Nagarajan , Z. Hu , S. Gao , X. Song , R. Huang , M. Seita , and J. Wei , “ Effect of in-situ laser remelting on the microstructure of SS316L fabricated by micro selective laser melting,” in Advanced Surface Enhancement, edited by Sho Itoh and Shashwat Shukla , Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering ( Springer Singapore, Singapore, 2020), pp. 330–336.
Google ScholarCrossref
H. Zhiheng , B. Nagarajan , X. Song , R. Huang , W. Zhai , and J. Wei , “ Tailoring surface roughness of micro selective laser melted SS316L by in-situ laser remelting,” in Advanced Surface Enhancement, edited by Sho Itoh and Shashwat Shukla , Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering ( Springer Singapore, Singapore, 2020), pp. 337–343.
Google Scholar
J. Fu , Z. Hu , X. Song , W. Zhai , Y. Long , H. Li , and M. Fu , “ Micro selective laser melting of NiTi shape memory alloy: Defects, microstructures and thermal/mechanical properties,” Opt. Laser Technol. 131, 106374 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106374
Google ScholarCrossref
E. Abele and M. Kniepkamp , “ Analysis and optimisation of vertical surface roughness in micro selective laser melting,” Surf. Topogr.: Metrol. Prop. 3, 034007 (2015).https://doi.org/10.1088/2051-672X/3/3/034007
Google ScholarCrossref
S. Qu , J. Ding , J. Fu , M. Fu , B. Zhang , and X. Song , “ High-precision laser powder bed fusion processing of pure copper,” Addit. Manuf. 48, 102417 (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102417
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Wei , G. Chen , M. Li , W. Li , Y. Zhou , J. Xu , and Z. wei , “ High-precision laser powder bed fusion of 18Ni300 maraging steel and its SiC reinforcement composite materials,” J. Manuf. Process. 84, 750–763 (2022).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.10.049
Google ScholarCrossref
B. Liu , R. Wildman , T. Christopher , I. Ashcroft , and H. Richard , “ Investigation the effect of particle size distribution on processing parameters optimisation in selective laser melting process,” in 2011 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium ( University of Texas at Austin, 2011).
Google Scholar
T. D. McLouth , G. E. Bean , D. B. Witkin , S. D. Sitzman , P. M. Adams , D. N. Patel , W. Park , J.-M. Yang , and R. J. Zaldivar , “ The effect of laser focus shift on microstructural variation of Inconel 718 produced by selective laser melting,” Mater. Des. 149, 205–213 (2018).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2018.04.019
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Qian , Y. Wentao , and L. Feng , “ Mesoscopic simulations of powder bed fusion: Research progresses and conditions,” Electromachining Mould 06, 46–52 (2017).https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-279X.2017.06.012
Google Scholar
J. Fu , S. Qu , J. Ding , X. Song , and M. W. Fu , “ Comparison of the microstructure, mechanical properties and distortion of stainless Steel 316L fabricated by micro and conventional laser powder bed fusion,” Addit. Manuf. 44, 102067 (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102067
Google ScholarCrossref
N. T. Aboulkhair , I. Maskery , C. Tuck , I. Ashcroft , and N. M. Everitt , “ The microstructure and mechanical properties of selectively laser Melted AlSi10Mg: The effect of a conventional T6-like heat treatment,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A 667, 139–146 (2016).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.04.092
Google ScholarCrossref
S. Y. Chen , J. C. Huang , C. T. Pan , C. H. Lin , T. L. Yang , Y. S. Huang , C. H. Ou , L. Y. Chen , D. Y. Lin , H. K. Lin , T. H. Li , J. S. C. Jang , and C. C. Yang , “ Microstructure and mechanical properties of open-cell porous Ti-6Al-4V fabricated by selective laser melting,” J. Alloys Compd. 713, 248–254 (2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.04.190
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Bai , Y. Yang , D. Wang , and M. Zhang , “ Influence mechanism of parameters process and mechanical properties evolution mechanism of Maraging steel 300 by selective laser melting,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A 703, 116–123 (2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.06.033
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Bai , Y. Yang , Z. Xiao , M. Zhang , and D. Wang , “ Process optimization and mechanical property evolution of AlSiMg0.75 by selective laser melting,” Mater. Des. 140, 257–266 (2018).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.045
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Liu , M. Zhang , W. Shi , Y. Ma , and J. Yang , “ Study on performance optimization of 316L stainless steel parts by high-efficiency selective laser melting,” Opt. Laser Technol. 138, 106872 (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106872
Google ScholarCrossref
D. Gu , Y.-C. Hagedorn , W. Meiners , G. Meng , R. J. S. Batista , K. Wissenbach , and R. Poprawe , “ Densification behavior, microstructure evolution, and wear performance of selective laser melting processed commercially pure titanium,” Acta Mater. 60, 3849–3860 (2012).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2012.04.006
Google ScholarCrossref
N. Read , W. Wang , K. Essa , and M. M. Attallah , “ Selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg alloy: Process optimisation and mechanical properties development,” Mater. Des. 65, 417–424 (2015).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.09.044
Google ScholarCrossref
I. A. Roberts , C. J. Wang , R. Esterlein , M. Stanford , and D. J. Mynors , “ A three-dimensional finite element analysis of the temperature field during laser melting of metal powders in additive layer manufacturing,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 49(12–13), 916–923 (2009).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2009.07.004
Google ScholarCrossref
K. Dai and L. Shaw , “ Finite element analysis of the effect of volume shrinkage during laser densification,” Acta Mater. 53(18), 4743–4754 (2005).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2005.06.014
Google ScholarCrossref
K. Carolin , E. Attar , and P. Heinl , “ Mesoscopic simulation of selective beam melting processes,” J. Mater. Process. Technol. 211(6), 978–987 (2011).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.12.016
Google ScholarCrossref
F.-J. Gürtler , M. Karg , K.-H. Leitz , and M. Schmidt , “ Simulation of laser beam melting of steel powders using the three-dimensional volume of fluid method,” Phys. Procedia 41, 881–886 (2013).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2013.03.162
Google ScholarCrossref
P. Meakin and R. Jullien , “ Restructuring effects in the rain model for random deposition,” J. Phys. France 48(10), 1651–1662 (1987).https://doi.org/10.1051/jphys:0198700480100165100
Google ScholarCrossref
J-m Wang , G-h Liu , Y-l Fang , and W-k Li , “ Marangoni effect in nonequilibrium multiphase system of material processing,” Rev. Chem. Eng. 32(5), 551–585 (2016).https://doi.org/10.1515/revce-2015-0067
Google ScholarCrossref
W. Ye , S. Zhang , L. L. Mendez , M. Farias , J. Li , B. Xu , P. Li , and Y. Zhang , “ Numerical simulation of the melting and alloying processes of elemental titanium and boron powders using selective laser alloying,” J. Manuf. Process. 64, 1235–1247 (2021).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.044
Google ScholarCrossref
U. S. Bertoli , A. J. Wolfer , M. J. Matthews , J.-P. R. Delplanque , and J. M. Schoenung , “ On the limitations of volumetric energy density as a design parameter for selective laser melting,” Mater. Des. 113, 331–340 (2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.10.037
Google ScholarCrossref
W. E. King , H. D. Barth , V. M. Castillo , G. F. Gallegos , J. W. Gibbs , D. E. Hahn , C. Kamath , and A. M. Rubenchik , “ Observation of keyhole-mode laser melting in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing,” J. Mater. Process. Technol. 214(12), 2915–2925 (2014).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.06.005
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Cao , “ Numerical simulation of the impact of laying powder on selective laser melting single-pass formation,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 141, 1036–1048 (2019).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.07.053
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Huang , X. Hua , D. Wu , and F. Li , “ Numerical study of keyhole instability and porosity formation mechanism in laser welding of aluminum alloy and steel,” J. Mater. Process. Technol. 252, 421–431 (2018).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.10.011
Google ScholarCrossref
K. Q. Le , C. Tang , and C. H. Wong , “ On the study of keyhole-mode melting in selective laser melting process,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 145, 105992 (2019).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2019.105992
Google ScholarCrossref
J.-H. Cho and S.-J. Na , “ Theoretical analysis of keyhole dynamics in polarized laser drilling,” J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 40(24), 7638 (2007).https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/40/24/007
Google ScholarCrossref
W. Ye , “ Mechanism analysis of selective laser melting and metallurgy process based on base element powder of titanium and boron,” Ph.D. dissertation ( Nanchang University, 2021).
Google Scholar
R. Ammer , M. Markl , U. Ljungblad , C. Körner , and U. Rüde , “ Simulating fast electron beam melting with a parallel thermal free surface lattice Boltzmann method,” Comput. Math. Appl. 67(2), 318–330 (2014).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.camwa.2013.10.001
Google ScholarCrossref
H. Chen , Q. Wei , S. Wen , Z. Li , and Y. Shi , “ Flow behavior of powder particles in layering process of selective laser melting: Numerical modeling and experimental verification based on discrete element method,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 123, 146–159 (2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2017.08.004
Google ScholarCrossref
F. Verhaeghe , T. Craeghs , J. Heulens , and L. Pandelaers , “ A pragmatic model for selective laser melting with evaporation,” Acta Mater. 57(20), 6006–6012 (2009).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2009.08.027
Google ScholarCrossref
C. H. Fu and Y. B. Guo , “ Three-dimensional temperature gradient mechanism in selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V,” J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 136(6), 061004 (2014).https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4028539
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Xiang , Z. Shuzhe , L. Junfeng , W. Zhengying , Y. Lixiang , and J. Lihao , “ Numerical simulation and experimental verification for selective laser single track melting forming of Ti6Al4V,” J. Zhejiang Univ. (Eng. Sci.) 53(11), 2102–2109 + 2117 (2019).https://doi.org/10.3785/j.issn.1008-973X.2019.11.007
Google Scholar
Q. He , H. Xia , J. Liu , X. Ao , and S. Lin , “ Modeling and numerical studies of selective laser melting: Multiphase flow, solidification and heat transfer,” Mater. Des. 196, 109115 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109115
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Cao , “ Mesoscopic-scale numerical simulation including the influence of process parameters on SLM single-layer multi-pass formation,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A 51, 4130–4145 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-020-05831-z
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Cao , “ Mesoscopic-scale numerical investigation including the influence of process parameters on LPBF multi-layer multi-path formation,” Comput. Model. Eng. Sci. 126(1), 5–23 (2021).https://doi.org/10.32604/cmes.2021.014693
Google ScholarCrossref
H. Yin and S. D. Felicelli , “ Dendrite growth simulation during solidification in the LENS process,” Acta Mater. 58(4), 1455–1465 (2010).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2009.10.053
Google ScholarCrossref
P. Nie , O. A. Ojo , and Z. Li , “ Numerical modeling of microstructure evolution during laser additive manufacturing of a nickel-based superalloy,” Acta Mater. 77, 85–95 (2014).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2014.05.039
Google ScholarCrossref
Z. Liu and H. Qi , “ Effects of substrate crystallographic orientations on crystal growth and microstructure formation in laser powder deposition of nickel-based superalloy,” Acta Mater. 87, 248–258 (2015).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2014.12.046
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Wei , L. Xin , W. Meng , and H. Weidong , “ Cellular automaton simulation of the molten pool of laser solid forming process,” Acta Phys. Sin. 64(01), 018103–018363 (2015).https://doi.org/10.7498/aps.64.018103
Google ScholarCrossref
R. Acharya , J. A. Sharon , and A. Staroselsky , “ Prediction of microstructure in laser powder bed fusion process,” Acta Mater. 124, 360–371 (2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.11.018
Google ScholarCrossref
M. R. Rolchigo and R. LeSar , “ Modeling of binary alloy solidification under conditions representative of additive manufacturing,” Comput. Mater. Sci. 150, 535–545 (2018).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2018.04.004
Google ScholarCrossref
S. Geng , P. Jiang , L. Guo , X. Gao , and G. Mi , “ Multi-scale simulation of grain/sub-grain structure evolution during solidification in laser welding of aluminum alloys,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 149, 119252 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.119252
Google ScholarCrossref
W. L. Wang , W. Q. Liu , X. Yang , R. R. Xu , and Q. Y. Dai , “ Multi-scale simulation of columnar-to-equiaxed transition during laser selective melting of rare earth magnesium alloy,” J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 119, 11–24 (2022).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2021.12.029
Google ScholarCrossref
Q. Xia , J. Yang , and Y. Li , “ On the conservative phase-field method with the N-component incompressible flows,” Phys. Fluids 35, 012120 (2023).https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0135490
Google ScholarCrossref
Q. Xia , G. Sun , J. Kim , and Y. Li , “ Multi-scale modeling and simulation of additive manufacturing based on fused deposition technique,” Phys. Fluids 35, 034116 (2023).https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0141316
Google ScholarCrossref
A. Hussein , L. Hao , C. Yan , and R. Everson , “ Finite element simulation of the temperature and stress fields in single layers built without-support in selective laser melting,” Mater. Des. 52, 638–647 (2013).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.05.070
Google ScholarCrossref
J. Ding , P. Colegrove , J. Mehnen , S. Ganguly , P. M. Sequeira Almeida , F. Wang , and S. Williams , “ Thermo-mechanical analysis of wire and arc additive layer manufacturing process on large multi-layer parts,” Comput. Mater. Sci. 50(12), 3315–3322 (2011).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2011.06.023
Google ScholarCrossref
Y. Du , X. You , F. Qiao , L. Guo , and Z. Liu , “ A model for predicting the temperature field during selective laser melting,” Results Phys. 12, 52–60 (2019).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2018.11.031
Google ScholarCrossref
X. Luo , M. Liu , L. Zhenhua , H. Li , and J. Shen , “ Effect of different heat-source models on calculated temperature field of selective laser melted 18Ni300,” Chin. J. Lasers 48(14), 1402005–1402062 (2021).https://doi.org/10.3788/CJL202148.1402005
Google ScholarCrossref
J. F. Li , L. Li , and F. H. Stott , “ Thermal stresses and their implication on cracking during laser melting of ceramic materials,” Acta Mater. 52(14), 4385–4398 (2004).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2004.06.005
Google ScholarCrossref
P. Aggarangsi and J. L. Beuth , “ Localized preheating approaches for reducing residual stress in additive manufacturing,” paper presented at the 2006 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, The University of Texas in Austin on August 14–16, 2006.
K. Dai and L. Shaw , “ Thermal and mechanical finite element modeling of laser forming from metal and ceramic powders,” Acta Mater. 52(1), 69–80 (2004).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2003.08.028
Google ScholarCrossref
A. H. Nickel , D. M. Barnett , and F. B. Prinz , “ Thermal stresses and deposition patterns in layered manufacturing,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A 317(1–2), 59–64 (2001).https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01179-0
Google ScholarCrossref
M. F. Zaeh and G. Branner , “ Investigations on residual stresses and deformations in selective laser melting,” Prod. Eng. 4(1), 35–45 (2010).https://doi.org/10.1007/s11740-009-0192-y
Google ScholarCrossref
P. Bian , J. Shi , Y. Liu , and Y. Xie , “ Influence of laser power and scanning strategy on residual stress distribution in additively manufactured 316L steel,” Opt. Laser Technol. 132, 106477 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106477
Google ScholarCrossref
B. M. Marques , C. M. Andrade , D. M. Neto , M. C. Oliveira , J. L. Alves , and L. F. Menezes , “ Numerical analysis of residual stresses in parts produced by selective laser melting process,” Procedia Manuf. 47, 1170–1177 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2020.04.167
Google ScholarCrossref
W. Mu , “ Numerical simulation of SLM forming process and research and prediction of forming properties,” MA thesis ( Anhui Jianzhu University, 2022).
Google Scholar
Y. Zhang , “ Multi-scale multi-physics modeling of laser powder bed fusion process of metallic materials with experiment validation,” Ph.D. dissertation ( Purdue University, 2018).
Google Scholar
Y. Qian , “ Mesoscopic simulation studies of key processing issues for powder bed fusion technology,” Ph.D. dissertation ( Tsinghua University, 2019).
Google Scholar
N. V. Brilliantov , S. Frank , J.-M. Hertzsch , and T. Pöschel , “ Model for collisions in granular gases,” Phys. Rev. E 53(5), 5382–5392 (1996).https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.53.5382
Google ScholarCrossref
Z. Xiao , “ Research on microscale selective laser melting process of high strength pure copper specimens,” MA thesis ( Hunan University, 2022).
Google Scholar
Z. Li , K. Mukai , M. Zeze , and K. C. Mills , “ Determination of the surface tension of liquid stainless steel,” J. Mater. Sci. 40(9–10), 2191–2195 (2005).https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-1931-x
Google ScholarCrossref
R. Scardovelli and S. Zaleski , “ Analytical relations connecting linear interfaces and volume fractions in rectangular grids,” J. Comput. Phys. 164(1), 228–237 (2000).https://doi.org/10.1006/jcph.2000.6567
Google ScholarCrossref
D.-W. Cho , W.-I. Cho , and S.-J. Na , “ Modeling and simulation of arc: Laser and hybrid welding process,” J. Manuf. Process. 16(1), 26–55 (2014).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2013.06.012
Google ScholarCrossref
76.Flow3D. Version 11.1.0: User Manual ( FlowScience, Santa Fe, NM, USA, 2015).
Y. Tian , L. Yang , D. Zhao , Y. Huang , and J. Pan , “ Numerical analysis of powder bed generation and single track forming for selective laser melting of ss316l stainless steel,” J. Manuf. Process. 58, 964–974 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.09.002
Google ScholarCrossref
C. Tang , K. Q. Le , and C. H. Wong , “ Physics of humping formation in laser powder bed fusion,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 149, 119172 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.119172
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Cao , “ Mesoscopic-scale simulation of pore evolution during laser powder bed fusion process,” Comput. Mater. Sci. 179, 109686 (2020).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2020.109686
Google ScholarCrossref
R. Li , J. Liu , Y. Shi , W. Li , and W. Jiang , “ Balling behavior of stainless steel and nickel powder during selective laser melting process,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 59(9–12), 1025–1035 (2012).https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-011-3566-1
Google ScholarCrossref
S. A. Khairallah and A. Anderson , “ Mesoscopic simulation model of selective laser melting of stainless steel powder,” J. Mater. Process. Technol. 214(11), 2627–2636 (2014).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.06.001
Google ScholarCrossref
J. Liu , D. Gu , H. Chen , D. Dai , and H. Zhang , “ Influence of substrate surface morphology on wetting behavior of tracks during selective laser melting of aluminum-based alloys,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 19(2), 111–121 (2018).https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.A1700599
Google ScholarCrossref
L. Li , J. Li , and T. Fan , “ Phase-field modeling of wetting and balling dynamics in powder bed fusion process,” Phys. Fluids 33, 042116 (2021).https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0046771
Google ScholarCrossref
X. Nie , Z. Hu , H. Zhu , Z. Hu , L. Ke , and X. Zeng , “ Analysis of processing parameters and characteristics of selective laser melted high strength Al-Cu-Mg alloys: from single tracks to cubic samples,” J. Mater. Process. Technol. 256, 69–77 (2018).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.01.030
Google ScholarCrossref

원본 바로가기

Effects of ramp slope and discharge on hydraulic performance of submerged hump weirs

Arash Ahmadi ^a, Amir H. Azimi ^b

Abstract

험프 웨어는 수위 제어 및 배출 측정을 위한 기존의 수력 구조물 중 하나입니다. 상류 및 하류 경사로의 경사는 자유 및 침수 흐름 조건 모두에서 험프 웨어의 성능에 영향을 미치는 설계 매개변수입니다.

침수된 험프보의 유출 특성 및 수위 변화에 대한 램프 경사 및 유출의 영향을 조사하기 위해 일련의 수치 시뮬레이션이 수행되었습니다. 1V:1H에서 1V:5H까지의 5개 램프 경사를 다양한 업스트림 방전에서 테스트했습니다.

수치모델의 검증을 위해 수치결과를 실험실 데이터와 비교하였다. 수면수위 예측과 유출계수의 시뮬레이션 불일치는 각각 전체 범위의 ±10%와 ±5% 이내였습니다.

모듈 한계 및 방전 감소 계수의 변화에 대한 램프 경사의 영향을 연구했습니다. 험프보의 경사로 경사가 증가함에 따라 상대적으로 높은 침수율에서 모듈러 한계가 발생함을 알 수 있었다.

침수 시작은 방류 수위를 작은 증분으로 조심스럽게 증가시켜 모델링되었으며 그 결과는 모듈 한계의 고전적인 정의와 비교되었습니다. 램프 경사와 방전이 증가함에 따라 모듈러 한계가 증가하는 것으로 밝혀졌지만, 모듈러 한계의 고전적인 정의는 모듈러 한계가 방전과 무관하다는 것을 나타냅니다.

Hump weir 하류의 속도와 와류장은 램프 경사에 의해 제어되는 와류 구조 형성을 나타냅니다. 에너지 손실은 수치 출력으로부터 계산되었으며 정규화된 에너지 손실은 침수에 따라 선형적으로 감소하는 것으로 나타났습니다.

Hump weirs are amongst conventional hydraulic structures for water level control and discharge measurement. The slope in the upstream and downstream ramps is a design parameter that affects the performance of Hump weirs in both free and submerged flow conditions. A series of numerical simulations was performed to investigate the effects of ramp slope and discharge on discharge characteristics and water level variations of submerged Hump weirs. Five ramp slopes ranging from 1V:1H to 1V:5H were tested at different upstream discharges. The numerical results were compared with the laboratory data for verifications of the numerical model. The simulation discrepancies in prediction of water surface level and discharge coefficient were within ±10 % and ±5 % of the full range, respectively. The effects of ramp slope on variations of modular limit and discharge reduction factor were studied. It was found that the modular limit occurred at relatively higher submergence ratios as the ramp slope in Hump weirs increased. The onset of submergence was modeled by carefully increasing tailwater level with small increments and the results were compared with the classic definition of modular limit. It was found that the modular limit increases with increasing the ramp slope and discharge while the classic definition of modular limit indicated that the modular limit is independent of the discharge. The velocity and vortex fields in the downstream of Hump weirs indicated the formation vortex structure, which is controlled by the ramp slope. The energy losses were calculated from the numerical outputs, and it was found that the normalized energy losses decreased linearly with submergence.

원문 바로가기

Introduction

Weirs have been utilized predominantly for discharge measurement, flow diversion, and water level control in open channels, irrigation canal, and natural streams due to their simplicity of operation and accuracy. Several research studies have been conducted to determine the head-discharge relationship in weirs as one of the most common hydraulic structures for flow measurement (Rajaratnam and Muralidhar, 1969 [[1], [2], [3]]; Vatankhah, 2010, [[4], [5], [6]]; b [[7], [8], [9]]; Azimi and Seyed Hakim, 2019; Salehi et al., 2019; Salehi and Azimi, 2019, [10]. Weirs in general are classified into two major categories named as sharp-crested weirs and weirs of finite-crest length (Rajaratnam and Muralidhar, 1969; [11]. Sharp-crested weirs are typically used for flow measurement in small irrigation canals and laboratory flumes. In contrast, weirs of finite crest length are more suitable for water level control and flow diversion in rivers and natural streams [7,[12], [13], [14]].

The head-discharge relationship in sharp-crested weirs is developed by employing energy equation between two sections in the upstream and downstream of the weir and integration of the velocity profile at the crest of the weir as:

where Q_f is the free flow discharge, B is the channel width, g is the acceleration due to gravity, h_o is the water head in free-flow condition, and C_d is the discharge coefficient. Rehbock [15] proposed a linear correlation between discharge coefficient and the ratio of water head, h_o, and the weir height, P as C_d = 0.605 + 0.08 (h_o/P).

Upstream and/or downstream ramp(s) can be added to sharp-crested weirs to enhance the structural stability of the weir. A sharp-crested weir with upstream and/or downstream ramp(s) are known as triangular weirs in the literature. Triangular weirs with both upstream and downstream ramps are also known as Hump weirs and are first introduced in the experimental study of Bazin [16]. The ramps are constructed upstream and downstream of sharp-crested weirs to enhance the weir’s structural integrity and improve the hydraulic performance of the weir. In free-flow condition, the discharge coefficient of Hump weirs increases with increasing downstream ramp slope but decreases as upstream ramp slope increases (Azimi et al., 2013).

The hydraulic performance of weirs is evaluated in both free and submerged flow conditions. In free flow condition, water freely flows over weirs since the downstream water level is lower than that of the crest level of the weir. Channel blockage or flood in the downstream of weirs can raise the tailwater level, t. As tailwater passes the crest elevation in sharp-crested weirs, the upstream flow decelerates due to the excess pressure force in the downstream and the upstream water level increases. The onset of water level raise due to tailwater raise is called the modular limit. Once the tailwater level passes the modular limit, the weir is submerged. In sharp-crested weirs, the submerged flow regime may occur even before the tailwater reaches the crest elevation [8,14], whereas, in weirs of finite crest length, the upstream water level remains unchanged even if the tailwater raises above the crest elevation and it normally causes submergence once the tailwater level passes the critical depth at the crest of the weir [7,17]. The degree of submergence can be estimated by careful observation of the water surface profile. Observations of water surface at different submergence levels indicated two distinct flow patterns in submerged sharp-crested weirs that was initially classified as impinging jet and surface flow regimes [14]. [8] analyzed the variations of water surface profiles over submerged sharp-crested weirs with different submergence ratios and defined four distinct regimes of impinging jet, surface jump, surface wave, and surface jet.

[18] characterized the onset of submergence by defining the modular limit as a stage when the free flow head increases by +1 mm due to tailwater rise. The definition of modular limit is somewhat arbitrary, and it is difficult to identify for large discharges because the upstream water surface begins to fluctuate. This definition did not consider the effects of channel and weir geometries. The experimental data in triangular weirs and weirs finite-crest length with upstream and downstream ramp(s) revealed that the modular limit varied with the ratio of the free-flow head to the total streamwise length of the weir [17]. Weirs of finite crest length with upstream and downstream ramps are known as embankment weirs in literature [1,19,20] and Azimi et al., 2013) [19]. conducted two series of laboratory experiments to study the hydraulics of submerged embankment weirs with the upstream and downstream ramps of 1V:1H and 1V:2H. Empirical correlations were proposed to directly estimate the flow discharge in submerged embankment weirs for t/h > 0.7 where h is the water head in submerged flow condition. He found that the free flow discharge is a function of upstream water head, but the submerged discharge is a function of submergence level, t/h [21]. studied the hydraulics of four embankment weirs with different weir heights ranging from 0.09 m to 0.36 m. It was found that submerged embankments with a higher h_o/P, where P is the height of the weir, have a smaller discharge reduction due to submergence. Effects of crest length in embankment weirs with both upstream and downstream ramps of 1V:2H was studied in both free and submerged flow conditions [1]. It was found that the modular limit in submerged embankment weirs decreased linearly with the relative crest length, H_o/(H_o + L), where H_o is the total head and L is the crest length.

In submerged flow condition, the performance of weirs is quantified by the discharge reduction factor, ψ, which is a ratio of the submerged discharge, Q_s, to the corresponding free-flow discharge, Q_f, based on the upstream head, h [12]. In submerged-flow conditions, flow discharge can be estimated as:��=��

[1] proposed a formula to predict ψ that could be used for embankment weirs with different crest lengths ranging from 0 to 0.3 m as:�=(1−��)�where n is an exponent varying from 4 to 7 and Y_t is the normalized submergence defined as:��=�ℎ−[0.85−(0.5��+�)]1−[0.85−(0.5��+�)]where H is the total upstream head in submerged-flow conditions [7]. proposed a simpler formula to predict ψ for weirs of finite-crest length as:�=[1−(�ℎ)�]�where m and n are exponents varying for different types of weirs. Hakim and Azimi (2017) employed regression analysis to propose values of n = 0.25 and m = 0.28 (h_o/L)^−2.425 for triangular weirs.

The discharge capacity of weirs decreases in submerged flow condition and the onset of submergence occurs at the modular limit. Therefore, the determination of modular limit in weirs with different geometries is critical to understanding the sensitivity of a particular weir model with tailwater level variations. The available definition of modular limit as when head water raises by +1 mm due to tailwater rise does not consider the effects of channel and weir geometries. Therefore, a new and more accurate definition of modular limit is proposed in this study to consider the effect of other geometry and approaching flow parameters. The second objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of upstream and downstream ramps and ramps slopes on the hydraulic performance of submerged Hump weirs. The flow patterns, velocity distributions, and energy dissipation rates were extracted from validated numerical data to better understand the discharge reduction mechanism in Hump weirs in both free and submerged flow conditions.

Section snippets

Governing equations

Numerical simulation has been employed as an efficient and effective method to analyze free surface flow problems and in particular investigating on the hydraulics of flow over weirs [22]. The weir models were developed in numerical domain and the water pressure and velocity field were simulated by employing the FLOW-3D solver (Flow Science, Inc., Santa Fe, USA). The numerical results were validated with the laboratory measurements and the effects of ramps slopes on the performance of Hump

Verification of numerical model

The experimental observations of Bazin [16,17] were used for model validation in free and submerged flow conditions, respectively. The weir height in the study of Bazin was P = 0.5 m and two ramp slopes of 1V:1H and 1V:2H were tested. The bed and sides of the channel were made of glass, and the roughness distribution of the bed and walls were uniform. The Hump weir models in the study of Seyed Hakim and Azimi (2017) had a weir height of 0.076 m and ramp slopes of 1V:2H in both upstream and

Conclusions

A series of numerical simulations was performed to study the hydraulics and velocity pattern downstream of a Hump weir with symmetrical ramp slopes. Effects of ramp slope and discharge on formation of modular limit and in submerged flow condition were tested by conducting a series of numerical simulations on Hump weirs with ramp slopes varying from 1V:1H to 1V:5H. A comparison between numerical results and experimental data indicated that the proposed numerical model is accurate with a mean

Author contributions

Arash Ahmadi: Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Amir Azimi: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Uncited References

[30]; [31]; [32]; [33].

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References (33)

H.M. Fritz et al.Hydraulics of embankment weirsJ. Hydraul. Eng.(1998)
P.K. Swamee et al.Viscosity and surface tension effects on rectangular weirsThe ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering(2001)
R. BaddourHead-discharge equation for the sharp-crested polynomial weirJ. Irrigat. Drain. Eng.(2008)
A.R. VatankhahHead-discharge equation for sharp-crested weir with piecewise-linear sidesJ. Irrigat. Drain. Eng.(2012)
A.H. Azimi et al.A note on sharp-crested weirs and weirs of finite crest lengthCan. J. Civ. Eng.(2012)
A.H. Azimi et al.Discharge characteristics of weirs of finite crest length with upstream and downstream rampsJ. Irrigat. Drain. Eng.(2013)
A.H. Azimi et al.Submerged flows over rectangular weirs of finite crest lengthJ. Irrigat. Drain. Eng.(2014)
A.H. Azimi et al.Water surface characteristics of submerged rectangular sharp-crested weirsJ. Hydraul. Eng.(2016)
M. Bijankhan et al.Experimental study and numerical simulation of inclined rectangular weirsJ. Irrigat. Drain. Eng.(2018)
A.H. AzimiAn Introduction to Hydraulic Structure” in Water Engineering Modeling and Mathematic Tools(2021)

Lab-on-a-Chip 시스템의 혈류 역학에 대한 검토: 엔지니어링 관점

Review on Blood Flow Dynamics in Lab-on-a-Chip Systems: An Engineering Perspective

Bin-Jie Lai
,
Li-Tao Zhu
,
Zhe Chen*
,
Bo Ouyang*
, and
Zheng-Hong Luo*

Abstract

다양한 수송 메커니즘 하에서, “LOC(lab-on-a-chip)” 시스템에서 유동 전단 속도 조건과 밀접한 관련이 있는 혈류 역학은 다양한 수송 현상을 초래하는 것으로 밝혀졌습니다.

본 연구는 적혈구의 동적 혈액 점도 및 탄성 거동과 같은 점탄성 특성의 역할을 통해 LOC 시스템의 혈류 패턴을 조사합니다. 모세관 및 전기삼투압의 주요 매개변수를 통해 LOC 시스템의 혈액 수송 현상에 대한 연구는 실험적, 이론적 및 수많은 수치적 접근 방식을 통해 제공됩니다.

전기 삼투압 점탄성 흐름에 의해 유발되는 교란은 특히 향후 연구 기회를 위해 혈액 및 기타 점탄성 유체를 취급하는 LOC 장치의 혼합 및 분리 기능 향상에 논의되고 적용됩니다. 또한, 본 연구는 보다 정확하고 단순화된 혈류 모델에 대한 요구와 전기역학 효과 하에서 점탄성 유체 흐름에 대한 수치 연구에 대한 강조와 같은 LOC 시스템 하에서 혈류 역학의 수치 모델링의 문제를 식별합니다.

전기역학 현상을 연구하는 동안 제타 전위 조건에 대한 보다 실용적인 가정도 강조됩니다. 본 연구는 모세관 및 전기삼투압에 의해 구동되는 미세유체 시스템의 혈류 역학에 대한 포괄적이고 학제적인 관점을 제공하는 것을 목표로 한다.

원문 PDF 다운로드

KEYWORDS:

1. Introduction

1.1. Microfluidic Flow in Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) Systems

Over the past several decades, the ability to control and utilize fluid flow patterns at microscales has gained considerable interest across a myriad of scientific and engineering disciplines, leading to growing interest in scientific research of microfluidics.

(1) Microfluidics, an interdisciplinary field that straddles physics, engineering, and biotechnology, is dedicated to the behavior, precise control, and manipulation of fluids geometrically constrained to a small, typically submillimeter, scale.

(2) The engineering community has increasingly focused on microfluidics, exploring different driving forces to enhance working fluid transport, with the aim of accurately and efficiently describing, controlling, designing, and applying microfluidic flow principles and transport phenomena, particularly for miniaturized applications.

(3) This attention has chiefly been fueled by the potential to revolutionize diagnostic and therapeutic techniques in the biomedical and pharmaceutical sectorsUnder various driving forces in microfluidic flows, intriguing transport phenomena have bolstered confidence in sustainable and efficient applications in fields such as pharmaceutical, biochemical, and environmental science. The “lab-on-a-chip” (LOC) system harnesses microfluidic flow to enable fluid processing and the execution of laboratory tasks on a chip-sized scale. LOC systems have played a vital role in the miniaturization of laboratory operations such as mixing, chemical reaction, separation, flow control, and detection on small devices, where a wide variety of fluids is adapted. Biological fluid flow like blood and other viscoelastic fluids are notably studied among the many working fluids commonly utilized by LOC systems, owing to the optimization in small fluid sample volumed, rapid response times, precise control, and easy manipulation of flow patterns offered by the system under various driving forces.

(4)The driving forces in blood flow can be categorized as passive or active transport mechanisms and, in some cases, both. Under various transport mechanisms, the unique design of microchannels enables different functionalities in driving, mixing, separating, and diagnosing blood and drug delivery in the blood.

(5) Understanding and manipulating these driving forces are crucial for optimizing the performance of a LOC system. Such knowledge presents the opportunity to achieve higher efficiency and reliability in addressing cellular level challenges in medical diagnostics, forensic studies, cancer detection, and other fundamental research areas, for applications of point-of-care (POC) devices.

(6)

1.2. Engineering Approach of Microfluidic Transport Phenomena in LOC Systems

Different transport mechanisms exhibit unique properties at submillimeter length scales in microfluidic devices, leading to significant transport phenomena that differ from those of macroscale flows. An in-depth understanding of these unique transport phenomena under microfluidic systems is often required in fluidic mechanics to fully harness the potential functionality of a LOC system to obtain systematically designed and precisely controlled transport of microfluids under their respective driving force. Fluid mechanics is considered a vital component in chemical engineering, enabling the analysis of fluid behaviors in various unit designs, ranging from large-scale reactors to separation units. Transport phenomena in fluid mechanics provide a conceptual framework for analytically and descriptively explaining why and how experimental results and physiological phenomena occur. The Navier–Stokes (N–S) equation, along with other governing equations, is often adapted to accurately describe fluid dynamics by accounting for pressure, surface properties, velocity, and temperature variations over space and time. In addition, limiting factors and nonidealities for these governing equations should be considered to impose corrections for empirical consistency before physical models are assembled for more accurate controls and efficiency. Microfluidic flow systems often deviate from ideal conditions, requiring adjustments to the standard governing equations. These deviations could arise from factors such as viscous effects, surface interactions, and non-Newtonian fluid properties from different microfluid types and geometrical layouts of microchannels. Addressing these nonidealities supports the refining of theoretical models and prediction accuracy for microfluidic flow behaviors.

The analytical calculation of coupled nonlinear governing equations, which describes the material and energy balances of systems under ideal conditions, often requires considerable computational efforts. However, advancements in computation capabilities, cost reduction, and improved accuracy have made numerical simulations using different numerical and modeling methods a powerful tool for effectively solving these complex coupled equations and modeling various transport phenomena. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical technique used to investigate the spatial and temporal distribution of various flow parameters. It serves as a critical approach to provide insights and reasoning for decision-making regarding the optimal designs involving fluid dynamics, even prior to complex physical model prototyping and experimental procedures. The integration of experimental data, theoretical analysis, and reliable numerical simulations from CFD enables systematic variation of analytical parameters through quantitative analysis, where adjustment to delivery of blood flow and other working fluids in LOC systems can be achieved.

Numerical methods such as the Finite-Difference Method (FDM), Finite-Element-Method (FEM), and Finite-Volume Method (FVM) are heavily employed in CFD and offer diverse approaches to achieve discretization of Eulerian flow equations through filling a mesh of the flow domain. A more in-depth review of numerical methods in CFD and its application for blood flow simulation is provided in Section 2.2.2.

1.3. Scope of the Review

In this Review, we explore and characterize the blood flow phenomena within the LOC systems, utilizing both physiological and engineering modeling approaches. Similar approaches will be taken to discuss capillary-driven flow and electric-osmotic flow (EOF) under electrokinetic phenomena as a passive and active transport scheme, respectively, for blood transport in LOC systems. Such an analysis aims to bridge the gap between physical (experimental) and engineering (analytical) perspectives in studying and manipulating blood flow delivery by different driving forces in LOC systems. Moreover, the Review hopes to benefit the interests of not only blood flow control in LOC devices but also the transport of viscoelastic fluids, which are less studied in the literature compared to that of Newtonian fluids, in LOC systems.

Section 2 examines the complex interplay between viscoelastic properties of blood and blood flow patterns under shear flow in LOC systems, while engineering numerical modeling approaches for blood flow are presented for assistance. Sections 3 and 4 look into the theoretical principles, numerical governing equations, and modeling methodologies for capillary driven flow and EOF in LOC systems as well as their impact on blood flow dynamics through the quantification of key parameters of the two driving forces. Section 5 concludes the characterized blood flow transport processes in LOC systems under these two forces. Additionally, prospective areas of research in improving the functionality of LOC devices employing blood and other viscoelastic fluids and potentially justifying mechanisms underlying microfluidic flow patterns outside of LOC systems are presented. Finally, the challenges encountered in the numerical studies of blood flow under LOC systems are acknowledged, paving the way for further research.

2. Blood Flow Phenomena

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

2.1. Physiological Blood Flow Behavior

Blood, an essential physiological fluid in the human body, serves the vital role of transporting oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. Additionally, blood is responsible for suspending various blood cells including erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (blood platelets) in a plasma medium.Among the cells mentioned above, red blood cells (RBCs) comprise approximately 40–45% of the volume of healthy blood.

(7) An RBC possesses an inherent elastic property with a biconcave shape of an average diameter of 8 μm and a thickness of 2 μm. This biconcave shape maximizes the surface-to-volume ratio, allowing RBCs to endure significant distortion while maintaining their functionality.

(8,9) Additionally, the biconcave shape optimizes gas exchange, facilitating efficient uptake of oxygen due to the increased surface area. The inherent elasticity of RBCs allows them to undergo substantial distortion from their original biconcave shape and exhibits high flexibility, particularly in narrow channels.RBC deformability enables the cell to deform from a biconcave shape to a parachute-like configuration, despite minor differences in RBC shape dynamics under shear flow between initial cell locations. As shown in Figure 1(a), RBCs initiating with different resting shapes and orientations displaying display a similar deformation pattern

(10) in terms of its shape. Shear flow induces an inward bending of the cell at the rear position of the rim to the final bending position,

(11) resulting in an alignment toward the same position of the flow direction.

Figure 1. Images of varying deformation of RBCs and different dynamic blood flow behaviors. (a) The deforming shape behavior of RBCs at four different initiating positions under the same experimental conditions of a flow from left to right, (10) (b) RBC aggregation, (13) (c) CFL region. (18) Reproduced with permission from ref (10). Copyright 2011 Elsevier. Reproduced with permission from ref (13). Copyright 2022 The Authors, under the terms of the Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0) License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Reproduced with permission from ref (18). Copyright 2019 Elsevier.

The flexible property of RBCs enables them to navigate through narrow capillaries and traverse a complex network of blood vessels. The deformability of RBCs depends on various factors, including the channel geometry, RBC concentration, and the elastic properties of the RBC membrane.

(12) Both flexibility and deformability are vital in the process of oxygen exchange among blood and tissues throughout the body, allowing cells to flow in vessels even smaller than the original cell size prior to deforming.As RBCs serve as major components in blood, their collective dynamics also hugely affect blood rheology. RBCs exhibit an aggregation phenomenon due to cell to cell interactions, such as adhesion forces, among populated cells, inducing unique blood flow patterns and rheological behaviors in microfluidic systems. For blood flow in large vessels between a diameter of 1 and 3 cm, where shear rates are not high, a constant viscosity and Newtonian behavior for blood can be assumed. However, under low shear rate conditions (0.1 s

^–1) in smaller vessels such as the arteries and venules, which are within a diameter of 0.2 mm to 1 cm, blood exhibits non-Newtonian properties, such as shear-thinning viscosity and viscoelasticity due to RBC aggregation and deformability. The nonlinear viscoelastic property of blood gives rise to a complex relationship between viscosity and shear rate, primarily influenced by the highly elastic behavior of RBCs. A wide range of research on the transient behavior of the RBC shape and aggregation characteristics under varied flow circumstances has been conducted, aiming to obtain a better understanding of the interaction between blood flow shear forces from confined flows.

For a better understanding of the unique blood flow structures and rheological behaviors in microfluidic systems, some blood flow patterns are introduced in the following section.

2.1.1. RBC Aggregation

RBC aggregation is a vital phenomenon to be considered when designing LOC devices due to its impact on the viscosity of the bulk flow. Under conditions of low shear rate, such as in stagnant or low flow rate regions, RBCs tend to aggregate, forming structures known as rouleaux, resembling stacks of coins as shown in Figure 1(b).

(13) The aggregation of RBCs increases the viscosity at the aggregated region,

(14) hence slowing down the overall blood flow. However, when exposed to high shear rates, RBC aggregates disaggregate. As shear rates continue to increase, RBCs tend to deform, elongating and aligning themselves with the direction of the flow.

(15) Such a dynamic shift in behavior from the cells in response to the shear rate forms the basis of the viscoelastic properties observed in whole blood. In essence, the viscosity of the blood varies according to the shear rate conditions, which are related to the velocity gradient of the system. It is significant to take the intricate relationship between shear rate conditions and the change of blood viscosity due to RBC aggregation into account since various flow driving conditions may induce varied effects on the degree of aggregation.

2.1.2. Fåhræus-Lindqvist Effect

The Fåhræus–Lindqvist (FL) effect describes the gradual decrease in the apparent viscosity of blood as the channel diameter decreases.

(16) This effect is attributed to the migration of RBCs toward the central region in the microchannel, where the flow rate is higher, due to the presence of higher pressure and asymmetric distribution of shear forces. This migration of RBCs, typically observed at blood vessels less than 0.3 mm, toward the higher flow rate region contributes to the change in blood viscosity, which becomes dependent on the channel size. Simultaneously, the increase of the RBC concentration in the central region of the microchannel results in the formation of a less viscous region close to the microchannel wall. This region called the Cell-Free Layer (CFL), is primarily composed of plasma.

(17) The combination of the FL effect and the following CFL formation provides a unique phenomenon that is often utilized in passive and active plasma separation mechanisms, involving branched and constriction channels for various applications in plasma separation using microfluidic systems.

2.1.3. Cell-Free Layer Formation

In microfluidic blood flow, RBCs form aggregates at the microchannel core and result in a region that is mostly devoid of RBCs near the microchannel walls, as shown in Figure 1(c).

(18) The region is known as the cell-free layer (CFL). The CFL region is often known to possess a lower viscosity compared to other regions within the blood flow due to the lower viscosity value of plasma when compared to that of the aggregated RBCs. Therefore, a thicker CFL region composed of plasma correlates to a reduced apparent whole blood viscosity.

(19) A thicker CFL region is often established following the RBC aggregation at the microchannel core under conditions of decreasing the tube diameter. Apart from the dependence on the RBC concentration in the microchannel core, the CFL thickness is also affected by the volume concentration of RBCs, or hematocrit, in whole blood, as well as the deformability of RBCs. Given the influence CFL thickness has on blood flow rheological parameters such as blood flow rate, which is strongly dependent on whole blood viscosity, investigating CFL thickness under shear flow is crucial for LOC systems accounting for blood flow.

2.1.4. Plasma Skimming in Bifurcation Networks

The uneven arrangement of RBCs in bifurcating microchannels, commonly termed skimming bifurcation, arises from the axial migration of RBCs within flowing streams. This uneven distribution contributes to variations in viscosity across differing sizes of bifurcating channels but offers a stabilizing effect. Notably, higher flow rates in microchannels are associated with increased hematocrit levels, resulting in higher viscosity compared with those with lower flow rates. Parametric investigations on bifurcation angle,

(20) thickness of the CFL,

(21) and RBC dynamics, including aggregation and deformation,

(22) may alter the varying viscosity of blood and its flow behavior within microchannels.

2.2. Modeling on Blood Flow Dynamics

2.2.1. Blood Properties and Mathematical Models of Blood Rheology

Under different shear rate conditions in blood flow, the elastic characteristics and dynamic changes of the RBC induce a complex velocity and stress relationship, resulting in the incompatibility of blood flow characterization through standard presumptions of constant viscosity used for Newtonian fluid flow. Blood flow is categorized as a viscoelastic non-Newtonian fluid flow where constitutive equations governing this type of flow take into consideration the nonlinear viscometric properties of blood. To mathematically characterize the evolving blood viscosity and the relationship between the elasticity of RBC and the shear blood flow, respectively, across space and time of the system, a stress tensor (τ) defined by constitutive models is often coupled in the Navier–Stokes equation to account for the collective impact of the constant dynamic viscosity (η) and the elasticity from RBCs on blood flow.The dynamic viscosity of blood is heavily dependent on the shear stress applied to the cell and various parameters from the blood such as hematocrit value, plasma viscosity, mechanical properties of the RBC membrane, and red blood cell aggregation rate. The apparent blood viscosity is considered convenient for the characterization of the relationship between the evolving blood viscosity and shear rate, which can be defined by Casson’s law, as shown in eq 1.

𝜇=𝜏0𝛾˙+2𝜂𝜏0𝛾˙⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯√+𝜂�=�0�˙+2��0�˙+�

(1)where τ

₀ is the yield stress–stress required to initiate blood flow motion, η is the Casson rheological constant, and γ̇ is the shear rate. The value of Casson’s law parameters under blood with normal hematocrit level can be defined as τ

₀ = 0.0056 Pa and η = 0.0035 Pa·s.

(23) With the known property of blood and Casson’s law parameters, an approximation can be made to the dynamic viscosity under various flow condition domains. The Power Law model is often employed to characterize the dynamic viscosity in relation to the shear rate, since precise solutions exist for specific geometries and flow circumstances, acting as a fundamental standard for definition. The Carreau and Carreau–Yasuda models can be advantageous over the Power Law model due to their ability to evaluate the dynamic viscosity at low to zero shear rate conditions. However, none of the above-mentioned models consider the memory or other elastic behavior of blood and its RBCs. Some other commonly used mathematical models and their constants for the non-Newtonian viscosity property characterization of blood are listed in Table 1 below.

(24−26)Table 1. Comparison of Various Non-Newtonian Models for Blood Viscosity

(24−26)

Model	Non-Newtonian Viscosity	Parameters
Power Law	(2)	n = 0.61, k = 0.42
Carreau	(3)	μ₀ = 0.056 Pa·s, μ_∞ = 0.00345 Pa·s, λ = 3.1736 s, m = 2.406, a = 0.254
Walburn–Schneck	(4)	C₁ = 0.000797 Pa·s, C₂ = 0.0608 Pa·s, C₃ = 0.00499, C₄ = 14.585 g^–1, TPMA = 25 g/L
Carreau–Yasuda	(5)	μ₀ = 0.056 Pa·s, μ_∞ = 0.00345 Pa·s, λ = 1.902 s, n = 0.22, a = 1.25
Quemada	(6)	μ_p = 0.0012 Pa·s, k_∞ = 2.07, k₀ = 4.33, γ̇_c = 1.88 s^–1

The blood rheology is commonly known to be influenced by two key physiological factors, namely, the hematocrit value (H

_t) and the fibrinogen concentration (c

_f), with an average value of 42% and 0.252 gd·L

^–1, respectively. Particularly in low shear conditions, the presence of varying fibrinogen concentrations affects the tendency for aggregation and rouleaux formation, while the occurrence of aggregation is contingent upon specific levels of hematocrit.

(27) The study from Apostolidis et al.

(28) modifies the Casson model through emphasizing its reliance on hematocrit and fibrinogen concentration parameter values, owing to the extensive knowledge of the two physiological blood parameters.The viscoelastic response of blood is heavily dependent on the elasticity of the RBC, which is defined by the relationship between the deformation and stress relaxation from RBCs under a specific location of shear flow as a function of the velocity field. The stress tensor is usually characterized by constitutive equations such as the Upper-Convected Maxwell Model

(29) and the Oldroyd-B model

(30) to track the molecule effects under shear from different driving forces. The prominent non-Newtonian features, such as shear thinning and yield stress, have played a vital role in the characterization of blood rheology, particularly with respect to the evaluation of yield stress under low shear conditions. The nature of stress measurement in blood, typically on the order of 1 mPa, is challenging due to its low magnitude. The occurrence of the CFL complicates the measurement further due to the significant decrease in apparent viscosity near the wall over time and a consequential disparity in viscosity compared to the bulk region.In addition to shear thinning viscosity and yield stress, the formation of aggregation (rouleaux) from RBCs under low shear rates also contributes to the viscoelasticity under transient flow

(31) and thixotropy

(32) of whole blood. Given the difficulty in evaluating viscoelastic behavior of blood under low strain magnitudes and limitations in generalized Newtonian models, the utilization of viscoelastic models is advocated to encompass elasticity and delineate non-shear components within the stress tensor. Extending from the Oldroyd-B model, Anand et al.

(33) developed a viscoelastic model framework for adapting elasticity within blood samples and predicting non-shear stress components. However, to also address the thixotropic effects, the model developed by Horner et al.

(34) serves as a more comprehensive approach than the viscoelastic model from Anand et al. Thixotropy

(32) typically occurs from the structural change of the rouleaux, where low shear rate conditions induce rouleaux formation. Correspondingly, elasticity increases, while elasticity is more representative of the isolated RBCs, under high shear rate conditions. The model of Horner et al.

(34) considers the contribution of rouleaux to shear stress, taking into account factors such as the characteristic time for Brownian aggregation, shear-induced aggregation, and shear-induced breakage. Subsequent advancements in the model from Horner et al. often revolve around refining the three aforementioned key terms for a more substantial characterization of rouleaux dynamics. Notably, this has led to the recently developed mHAWB model

(35) and other model iterations to enhance the accuracy of elastic and viscoelastic contributions to blood rheology, including the recently improved model suggested by Armstrong et al.

(36)

2.2.2. Numerical Methods (FDM, FEM, FVM)

Numerical simulation has become increasingly more significant in analyzing the geometry, boundary layers of flow, and nonlinearity of hyperbolic viscoelastic flow constitutive equations. CFD is a powerful and efficient tool utilizing numerical methods to solve the governing hydrodynamic equations, such as the Navier–Stokes (N–S) equation, continuity equation, and energy conservation equation, for qualitative evaluation of fluid motion dynamics under different parameters. CFD overcomes the challenge of analytically solving nonlinear forms of differential equations by employing numerical methods such as the Finite-Difference Method (FDM), Finite-Element Method (FEM), and Finite-Volume Method (FVM) to discretize and solve the partial differential equations (PDEs), allowing for qualitative reproduction of transport phenomena and experimental observations. Different numerical methods are chosen to cope with various transport systems for optimization of the accuracy of the result and control of error during the discretization process.FDM is a straightforward approach to discretizing PDEs, replacing the continuum representation of equations with a set of finite-difference equations, which is typically applied to structured grids for efficient implementation in CFD programs.

(37) However, FDM is often limited to simple geometries such as rectangular or block-shaped geometries and struggles with curved boundaries. In contrast, FEM divides the fluid domain into small finite grids or elements, approximating PDEs through a local description of physics.

(38) All elements contribute to a large, sparse matrix solver. However, FEM may not always provide accurate results for systems involving significant deformation and aggregation of particles like RBCs due to large distortion of grids.

(39) FVM evaluates PDEs following the conservation laws and discretizes the selected flow domain into small but finite size control volumes, with each grid at the center of a finite volume.

(40) The divergence theorem allows the conversion of volume integrals of PDEs with divergence terms into surface integrals of surface fluxes across cell boundaries. Due to its conservation property, FVM offers efficient outcomes when dealing with PDEs that embody mass, momentum, and energy conservation principles. Furthermore, widely accessible software packages like the OpenFOAM toolbox

(41) include a viscoelastic solver, making it an attractive option for viscoelastic fluid flow modeling.

(42)

2.2.3. Modeling Methods of Blood Flow Dynamics

The complexity in the blood flow simulation arises from deformability and aggregation that RBCs exhibit during their interaction with neighboring cells under different shear rate conditions induced by blood flow. Numerical models coupled with simulation programs have been applied as a groundbreaking method to predict such unique rheological behavior exhibited by RBCs and whole blood. The conventional approach of a single-phase flow simulation is often applied to blood flow simulations within large vessels possessing a moderate shear rate. However, such a method assumes the properties of plasma, RBCs and other cellular components to be evenly distributed as average density and viscosity in blood, resulting in the inability to simulate the mechanical dynamics, such as RBC aggregation under high-shear flow field, inherent in RBCs. To accurately describe the asymmetric distribution of RBC and blood flow, multiphase flow simulation, where numerical simulations of blood flows are often modeled as two immiscible phases, RBCs and blood plasma, is proposed. A common assumption is that RBCs exhibit non-Newtonian behavior while the plasma is treated as a continuous Newtonian phase.Numerous multiphase numerical models have been proposed to simulate the influence of RBCs on blood flow dynamics by different assumptions. In large-scale simulations (above the millimeter range), continuum-based methods are wildly used due to their lower computational demands.

(43) Eulerian multiphase flow simulations offer the solution of a set of conservation equations for each separate phase and couple the phases through common pressure and interphase exchange coefficients. Xu et al.

(44) utilized the combined finite-discrete element method (FDEM) to replicate the dynamic behavior and distortion of RBCs subjected to fluidic forces, utilizing the Johnson–Kendall–Roberts model

(45) to define the adhesive forces of cell-to-cell interactions. The iterative direct-forcing immersed boundary method (IBM) is commonly employed in simulations of the fluid–cell interface of blood. This method effectively captures the intricacies of the thin and flexible RBC membranes within various external flow fields.

(46) The study by Xu et al.

(44) also adopts this approach to bridge the fluid dynamics and RBC deformation through IBM. Yoon and You utilized the Maxwell model to define the viscosity of the RBC membrane.

(47) It was discovered that the Maxwell model could represent the stress relaxation and unloading processes of the cell. Furthermore, the reduced flexibility of an RBC under particular situations such as infection is specified, which was unattainable by the Kelvin–Voigt model

(48) when compared to the Maxwell model in the literature. The Yeoh hyperplastic material model was also adapted to predict the nonlinear elasticity property of RBCs with FEM employed to discretize the RBC membrane using shell-type elements. Gracka et al.

(49) developed a numerical CFD model with a finite-volume parallel solver for multiphase blood flow simulation, where an updated Maxwell viscoelasticity model and a Discrete Phase Model are adopted. In the study, the adapted IBM, based on unstructured grids, simulates the flow behavior and shape change of the RBCs through fluid-structure coupling. It was found that the hybrid Euler–Lagrange (E–L) approach

(50) for the development of the multiphase model offered better results in the simulated CFL region in the microchannels.To study the dynamics of individual behaviors of RBCs and the consequent non-Newtonian blood flow, cell-shape-resolved computational models are often adapted. The use of the boundary integral method has become prevalent in minimizing computational expenses, particularly in the exclusive determination of fluid velocity on the surfaces of RBCs, incorporating the option of employing IBM or particle-based techniques. The cell-shaped-resolved method has enabled an examination of cell to cell interactions within complex ambient or pulsatile flow conditions

(51) surrounding RBC membranes. Recently, Rydquist et al.

(52) have looked to integrate statistical information from macroscale simulations to obtain a comprehensive overview of RBC behavior within the immediate proximity of the flow through introduction of respective models characterizing membrane shape definition, tension, bending stresses of RBC membranes.At a macroscopic scale, continuum models have conventionally been adapted for assessing blood flow dynamics through the application of elasticity theory and fluid dynamics. However, particle-based methods are known for their simplicity and adaptability in modeling complex multiscale fluid structures. Meshless methods, such as the boundary element method (BEM), smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), and dissipative particle dynamics (DPD), are often used in particle-based characterization of RBCs and the surrounding fluid. By representing the fluid as discrete particles, meshless methods provide insights into the status and movement of the multiphase fluid. These methods allow for the investigation of cellular structures and microscopic interactions that affect blood rheology. Non-confronting mesh methods like IBM can also be used to couple a fluid solver such as FEM, FVM, or the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) through membrane representation of RBCs. In comparison to conventional CFD methods, LBM has been viewed as a favorable numerical approach for solving the N–S equations and the simulation of multiphase flows. LBM exhibits the notable advantage of being amenable to high-performance parallel computing environments due to its inherently local dynamics. In contrast to DPD and SPH where RBC membranes are modeled as physically interconnected particles, LBM employs the IBM to account for the deformation dynamics of RBCs

(53,54) under shear flows in complex channel geometries.

(54,55) However, it is essential to acknowledge that the utilization of LBM in simulating RBC flows often entails a significant computational overhead, being a primary challenge in this context. Krüger et al.

(56) proposed utilizing LBM as a fluid solver, IBM to couple the fluid and FEM to compute the response of membranes to deformation under immersed fluids. This approach decouples the fluid and membranes but necessitates significant computational effort due to the requirements of both meshes and particles.Despite the accuracy of current blood flow models, simulating complex conditions remains challenging because of the high computational load and cost. Balachandran Nair et al.

(57) suggested a reduced order model of RBC under the framework of DEM, where the RBC is represented by overlapping constituent rigid spheres. The Morse potential force is adapted to account for the RBC aggregation exhibited by cell to cell interactions among RBCs at different distances. Based upon the IBM, the reduced-order RBC model is adapted to simulate blood flow transport for validation under both single and multiple RBCs with a resolved CFD-DEM solver.

(58) In the resolved CFD-DEM model, particle sizes are larger than the grid size for a more accurate computation of the surrounding flow field. A continuous forcing approach is taken to describe the momentum source of the governing equation prior to discretization, which is different from a Direct Forcing Method (DFM).

(59) As no body-conforming moving mesh is required, the continuous forcing approach offers lower complexity and reduced cost when compared to the DFM. Piquet et al.

(60) highlighted the high complexity of the DFM due to its reliance on calculating an additional immersed boundary flux for the velocity field to ensure its divergence-free condition.The fluid–structure interaction (FSI) method has been advocated to connect the dynamic interplay of RBC membranes and fluid plasma within blood flow such as the coupling of continuum–particle interactions. However, such methodology is generally adapted for anatomical configurations such as arteries

(61,62) and capillaries,

(63) where both the structural components and the fluid domain undergo substantial deformation due to the moving boundaries. Due to the scope of the Review being blood flow simulation within microchannels of LOC devices without deformable boundaries, the Review of the FSI method will not be further carried out.In general, three numerical methods are broadly used: mesh-based, particle-based, and hybrid mesh–particle techniques, based on the spatial scale and the fundamental numerical approach, mesh-based methods tend to neglect the effects of individual particles, assuming a continuum and being efficient in terms of time and cost. However, the particle-based approach highlights more of the microscopic and mesoscopic level, where the influence of individual RBCs is considered. A review from Freund et al.

(64) addressed the three numerical methodologies and their respective modeling approaches of RBC dynamics. Given the complex mechanics and the diverse levels of study concerning numerical simulations of blood and cellular flow, a broad spectrum of numerical methods for blood has been subjected to extensive review.

(64−70) Ye at al.

(65) offered an extensive review of the application of the DPD, SPH, and LBM for numerical simulations of RBC, while Rathnayaka et al.

(67) conducted a review of the particle-based numerical modeling for liquid marbles through drawing parallels to the transport of RBCs in microchannels. A comparative analysis between conventional CFD methods and particle-based approaches for cellular and blood flow dynamic simulation can be found under the review by Arabghahestani et al.

(66) Literature by Li et al.

(68) and Beris et al.

(69) offer an overview of both continuum-based models at micro/macroscales and multiscale particle-based models encompassing various length and temporal dimensions. Furthermore, these reviews deliberate upon the potential of coupling continuum-particle methods for blood plasma and RBC modeling. Arciero et al.

(70) investigated various modeling approaches encompassing cellular interactions, such as cell to cell or plasma interactions and the individual cellular phases. A concise overview of the reviews is provided in Table 2 for reference.

Table 2. List of Reviews for Numerical Approaches Employed in Blood Flow Simulation

Reference	Numerical methods
Li et al. (2013) (68)	Continuum-based modeling (BIM), particle-based modeling (LBM, LB-FE, SPH, DPD)
Freund (2014) (64)	RBC dynamic modeling (continuum-based modeling, complementary discrete microstructure modeling), blood flow dynamic modeling (FDM, IBM, LBM, particle-mesh methods, coupled boundary integral and mesh-based methods, DPD)
Ye et al. (2016) (65)	DPD, SPH, LBM, coupled IBM-Smoothed DPD
Arciero et al. (2017) (70)	LBM, IBM, DPD, conventional CFD Methods (FDM, FVM, FEM)
Arabghahestani et al. (2019) (66)	Particle-based methods (LBM, DPD, direct simulation Monte Carlo, molecular dynamics), SPH, conventional CFD methods (FDM, FVM, FEM)
Beris et al. (2021) (69)	DPD, smoothed DPD, IBM, LBM, BIM
Rathnayaka (2022) (67)	SPH, CG, LBM

3. Capillary Driven Blood Flow in LOC Systems

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

3.1. Capillary Driven Flow Phenomena

Capillary driven (CD) flow is a pivotal mechanism in passive microfluidic flow systems

(9) such as the blood circulation system and LOC systems.

(71) CD flow is essentially the movement of a liquid to flow against drag forces, where the capillary effect exerts a force on the liquid at the borders, causing a liquid–air meniscus to flow despite gravity or other drag forces. A capillary pressure drops across the liquid–air interface with surface tension in the capillary radius and contact angle. The capillary effect depends heavily on the interaction between the different properties of surface materials. Different values of contact angles can be manipulated and obtained under varying levels of surface wettability treatments to manipulate the surface properties, resulting in different CD blood delivery rates for medical diagnostic device microchannels. CD flow techniques are appealing for many LOC devices, because they require no external energy. However, due to the passive property of liquid propulsion by capillary forces and the long-term instability of surface treatments on channel walls, the adaptability of CD flow in geometrically complex LOC devices may be limited.

3.2. Theoretical and Numerical Modeling of Capillary Driven Blood Flow

3.2.1. Theoretical Basis and Assumptions of Microfluidic Flow

The study of transport phenomena regarding either blood flow driven by capillary forces or externally applied forces under microfluid systems all demands a comprehensive recognition of the significant differences in flow dynamics between microscale and macroscale. The fundamental assumptions and principles behind fluid transport at the microscale are discussed in this section. Such a comprehension will lay the groundwork for the following analysis of the theoretical basis of capillary forces and their role in blood transport in LOC systems.

At the macroscale, fluid dynamics are often strongly influenced by gravity due to considerable fluid mass. However, the high surface to volume ratio at the microscale shifts the balance toward surface forces (e.g., surface tension and viscous forces), much larger than the inertial force. This difference gives rise to transport phenomena unique to microscale fluid transport, such as the prevalence of laminar flow due to a very low Reynolds number (generally lower than 1). Moreover, the fluid in a microfluidic system is often assumed to be incompressible due to the small flow velocity, indicating constant fluid density in both space and time.Microfluidic flow behaviors are governed by the fundamental principles of mass and momentum conservation, which are encapsulated in the continuity equation and the Navier–Stokes (N–S) equation. The continuity equation describes the conservation of mass, while the N–S equation captures the spatial and temporal variations in velocity, pressure, and other physical parameters. Under the assumption of the negligible influence of gravity in microfluidic systems, the continuity equation and the Eulerian representation of the incompressible N–S equation can be expressed as follows:

∇·𝐮⇀=0∇·�⇀=0

(7)

−∇𝑝+𝜇∇2𝐮⇀+∇·𝝉⇀−𝐅⇀=0−∇�+�∇2�⇀+∇·�⇀−�⇀=0

(8)Here, p is the pressure, u is the fluid viscosity,

𝝉⇀�⇀ represents the stress tensor, and F is the body force exerted by external forces if present.

3.2.2. Theoretical Basis and Modeling of Capillary Force in LOC Systems

The capillary force is often the major driving force to manipulate and transport blood without an externally applied force in LOC systems. Forces induced by the capillary effect impact the free surface of fluids and are represented not directly in the Navier–Stokes equations but through the pressure boundary conditions of the pressure term p. For hydrophilic surfaces, the liquid generally induces a contact angle between 0° and 30°, encouraging the spread and attraction of fluid under a positive cos θ condition. For this condition, the pressure drop becomes positive and generates a spontaneous flow forward. A hydrophobic solid surface repels the fluid, inducing minimal contact. Generally, hydrophobic solids exhibit a contact angle larger than 90°, inducing a negative value of cos θ. Such a value will result in a negative pressure drop and a flow in the opposite direction. The induced contact angle is often utilized to measure the wall exposure of various surface treatments on channel walls where different wettability gradients and surface tension effects for CD flows are established. Contact angles between different interfaces are obtainable through standard values or experimental methods for reference.

(72)For the characterization of the induced force by the capillary effect, the Young–Laplace (Y–L) equation

(73) is widely employed. In the equation, the capillary is considered a pressure boundary condition between the two interphases. Through the Y–L equation, the capillary pressure force can be determined, and subsequently, the continuity and momentum balance equations can be solved to obtain the blood filling rate. Kim et al.

(74) studied the effects of concentration and exposure time of a nonionic surfactant, Silwet L-77, on the performance of a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microchannel in terms of plasma and blood self-separation. The study characterized the capillary pressure force by incorporating the Y–L equation and further evaluated the effects of the changing contact angle due to different levels of applied channel wall surface treatments. The expression of the Y–L equation utilized by Kim et al.

(74) is as follows:

𝑃=−𝜎(cos𝜃b+cos𝜃tℎ+cos𝜃l+cos𝜃r𝑤)�=−�(cos⁡�b+cos⁡�tℎ+cos⁡�l+cos⁡�r�)

(9)where σ is the surface tension of the liquid and θ

_b, θ

_t, θ

_l, and θ

_r are the contact angle values between the liquid and the bottom, top, left, and right walls, respectively. A numerical simulation through Coventor software is performed to evaluate the dynamic changes in the filling rate within the microchannel. The simulation results for the blood filling rate in the microchannel are expressed at a specific time stamp, shown in Figure 2. The results portray an increasing instantaneous filling rate of blood in the microchannel following the decrease in contact angle induced by a higher concentration of the nonionic surfactant treated to the microchannel wall.

Figure 2. Numerical simulation of filling rate of capillary driven blood flow under various contact angle conditions at a specific timestamp. (74) Reproduced with permission from ref (74). Copyright 2010 Elsevier.

When in contact with hydrophilic or hydrophobic surfaces, blood forms a meniscus with a contact angle due to surface tension. The Lucas–Washburn (L–W) equation

(75) is one of the pioneering theoretical definitions for the position of the meniscus over time. In addition, the L–W equation provides the possibility for research to obtain the velocity of the blood formed meniscus through the derivation of the meniscus position. The L–W equation

(75) can be shown below:

𝐿(𝑡)=𝑅𝜎cos(𝜃)𝑡2𝜇⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯√�(�)=��⁡cos(�)�2�

(10)Here L(t) represents the distance of the liquid driven by the capillary forces. However, the generalized L–W equation solely assumes the constant physical properties from a Newtonian fluid rather than considering the non-Newtonian fluid behavior of blood. Cito et al.

(76) constructed an enhanced version of the L–W equation incorporating the power law to consider the RBC aggregation and the FL effect. The non-Newtonian fluid apparent viscosity under the Power Law model is defined as

𝜇=𝑘·(𝛾˙)𝑛−1�=�·(�˙)�−1

(11)where γ̇ is the strain rate tensor defined as

𝛾˙=12𝛾˙𝑖𝑗𝛾˙𝑗𝑖⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯√�˙=12�˙��˙��. The stress tensor term τ is computed as τ = μγ̇

_ij. The updated L–W equation by Cito

(76) is expressed as

𝐿(𝑡)=𝑅[(𝑛+13𝑛+1)(𝜎cos(𝜃)𝑅𝑘)1/𝑛𝑡]𝑛/𝑛+1�(�)=�[(�+13�+1)(�⁡cos(�)��)1/��]�/�+1

(12)where k is the flow consistency index and n is the power law index, respectively. The power law index, from the Power Law model, characterizes the extent of the non-Newtonian behavior of blood. Both the consistency and power law index rely on blood properties such as hematocrit, the appearance of the FL effect, the formation of RBC aggregates, etc. The updated L–W equation computes the location and velocity of blood flow caused by capillary forces at specified time points within the LOC devices, taking into account the effects of blood flow characteristics such as RBC aggregation and the FL effect on dynamic blood viscosity.Apart from the blood flow behaviors triggered by inherent blood properties, unique flow conditions driven by capillary forces that are portrayed under different microchannel geometries also hold crucial implications for CD blood delivery. Berthier et al.

(77) studied the spontaneous Concus–Finn condition, the condition to initiate the spontaneous capillary flow within a V-groove microchannel, as shown in Figure 3(a) both experimentally and numerically. Through experimental studies, the spontaneous Concus–Finn filament development of capillary driven blood flow is observed, as shown in Figure 3(b), while the dynamic development of blood flow is numerically simulated through CFD simulation.

Figure 3. (a) Sketch of the cross-section of Berthier’s V-groove microchannel, (b) experimental view of blood in the V-groove microchannel, (78) (c) illustration of the dynamic change of the extension of filament from FLOW 3D under capillary flow at three increasing time intervals. (78) Reproduced with permission from ref (78). Copyright 2014 Elsevier.

Berthier et al.

(77) characterized the contact angle needed for the initiation of the capillary driving force at a zero-inlet pressure, through the half-angle (α) of the V-groove geometry layout, and its relation to the Concus–Finn filament as shown below:

𝜃<𝜋2−𝛼sin𝛼1+2(ℎ2/𝑤)sin𝛼<cos𝜃{�<�2−�sin⁡�1+2(ℎ2/�)⁡sin⁡�<cos⁡�

(13)Three possible regimes were concluded based on the contact angle value for the initiation of flow and development of Concus–Finn filament:

𝜃>𝜃1𝜃1>𝜃>𝜃0𝜃0no SCFSCF without a Concus−Finn filamentSCF without a Concus−Finn filament{�>�1no SCF�1>�>�0SCF without a Concus−Finn filament�0SCF without a Concus−Finn filament

(14)Under Newton’s Law, the force balance with low Reynolds and Capillary numbers results in the neglect of inertial terms. The force balance between the capillary forces and the viscous force induced by the channel wall is proposed to derive the analytical fluid velocity. This relation between the two forces offers insights into the average flow velocity and the penetration distance function dependent on time. The apparent blood viscosity is defined by Berthier et al.

(78) through Casson’s law,

(23) given in eq 1. The research used the FLOW-3D program from Flow Science Inc. software, which solves transient, free-surface problems using the FDM in multiple dimensions. The Volume of Fluid (VOF) method

(79) is utilized to locate and track the dynamic extension of filament throughout the advancing interface within the channel ahead of the main flow at three progressing time stamps, as depicted in Figure 3(c).

4. Electro-osmotic Flow (EOF) in LOC Systems

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

The utilization of external forces, such as electric fields, has significantly broadened the possibility of manipulating microfluidic flow in LOC systems.

(80) Externally applied electric field forces induce a fluid flow from the movement of ions in fluid terms as the “electro-osmotic flow” (EOF).Unique transport phenomena, such as enhanced flow velocity and flow instability, induced by non-Newtonian fluids, particularly viscoelastic fluids, under EOF, have sparked considerable interest in microfluidic devices with simple or complicated geometries within channels.

(81) However, compared to the study of Newtonian fluids and even other electro-osmotic viscoelastic fluid flows, the literature focusing on the theoretical and numerical modeling of electro-osmotic blood flow is limited due to the complexity of blood properties. Consequently, to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the complex blood flow behavior under EOF, theoretical and numerical studies of the transport phenomena in the EOF section will be based on the studies of different viscoelastic fluids under EOF rather than that of blood specifically. Despite this limitation, we believe these studies offer valuable insights that can help understand the complex behavior of blood flow under EOF.

4.1. EOF Phenomena

Electro-osmotic flow occurs at the interface between the microchannel wall and bulk phase solution. When in contact with the bulk phase, solution ions are absorbed or dissociated at the solid–liquid interface, resulting in the formation of a charge layer, as shown in Figure 4. This charged channel surface wall interacts with both negative and positive ions in the bulk sample, causing repulsion and attraction forces to create a thin layer of immobilized counterions, known as the Stern layer. The induced electric potential from the wall gradually decreases with an increase in the distance from the wall. The Stern layer potential, commonly termed the zeta potential, controls the intensity of the electrostatic interactions between mobile counterions and, consequently, the drag force from the applied electric field. Next to the Stern layer is the diffuse mobile layer, mainly composed of a mobile counterion. These two layers constitute the “electrical double layer” (EDL), the thickness of which is directly proportional to the ionic strength (concentration) of the bulk fluid. The relationship between the two parameters is characterized by a Debye length (λ

_D), expressed as

𝜆𝐷=𝜖𝑘B𝑇2(𝑍𝑒)2𝑐0⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯√��=��B�2(��)2�0

(15)where ϵ is the permittivity of the electrolyte solution, k

_B is the Boltzmann constant, T is the electron temperature, Z is the integer valence number, e is the elementary charge, and c

₀ is the ionic density.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of an electro-osmotic flow in a microchannel with negative surface charge. (82) Reproduced with permission from ref (82). Copyright 2012 Woodhead Publishing.

When an electric field is applied perpendicular to the EDL, viscous drag is generated due to the movement of excess ions in the EDL. Electro-osmotic forces can be attributed to the externally applied electric potential (ϕ) and the zeta potential, the system wall induced potential by charged walls (ψ). As illustrated in Figure 4, the majority of ions in the bulk phase have a uniform velocity profile, except for a shear rate condition confined within an extremely thin Stern layer. Therefore, EOF displays a unique characteristic of a “near flat” or plug flow velocity profile, different from the parabolic flow typically induced by pressure-driven microfluidic flow (Hagen–Poiseuille flow). The plug-shaped velocity profile of the EOF possesses a high shear rate above the Stern layer.Overall, the EOF velocity magnitude is typically proportional to the Debye Length (λ

_D), zeta potential, and magnitude of the externally applied electric field, while a more viscous liquid reduces the EOF velocity.

4.2. Modeling on Electro-osmotic Viscoelastic Fluid Flow

4.2.1. Theoretical Basis of EOF Mechanisms

The EOF of an incompressible viscoelastic fluid is commonly governed by the continuity and incompressible N–S equations, as shown in eqs 7 and 8, where the stress tensor and the electrostatic force term are coupled. The electro-osmotic body force term F, representing the body force exerted by the externally applied electric force, is defined as

𝐹⇀=𝑝𝐸𝐸⇀�⇀=��⇀, where ρ

_E and

𝐸⇀�⇀ are the net electric charge density and the applied external electric field, respectively.Numerous models are established to theoretically study the externally applied electric potential and the system wall induced potential by charged walls. The following Laplace equation, expressed as eq 16, is generally adapted and solved to calculate the externally applied potential (ϕ).

∇2𝜙=0∇2�=0

(16)Ion diffusion under applied electric fields, together with mass transport resulting from convection and diffusion, transports ionic solutions in bulk flow under electrokinetic processes. The Nernst–Planck equation can describe these transport methods, including convection, diffusion, and electro-diffusion. Therefore, the Nernst–Planck equation is used to determine the distribution of the ions within the electrolyte. The electric potential induced by the charged channel walls follows the Poisson–Nernst–Plank (PNP) equation, which can be written as eq 17.

∇·[𝐷𝑖∇𝑛𝑖−𝑢⇀𝑛𝑖+𝑛𝑖𝐷𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑒𝑘𝑏𝑇∇(𝜙+𝜓)]=0∇·[��∇��−�⇀��+��∇(�+�)]=0

(17)where D

_i, n

_i, and z

_i are the diffusion coefficient, ionic concentration, and ionic valence of the ionic species I, respectively. However, due to the high nonlinearity and numerical stiffness introduced by different lengths and time scales from the PNP equations, the Poisson–Boltzmann (PB) model is often considered the major simplified method of the PNP equation to characterize the potential distribution of the EDL region in microchannels. In the PB model, it is assumed that the ionic species in the fluid follow the Boltzmann distribution. This model is typically valid for steady-state problems where charge transport can be considered negligible, the EDLs do not overlap with each other, and the intrinsic potentials are low. It provides a simplified representation of the potential distribution in the EDL region. The PB equation governing the EDL electric potential distribution is described as

∇2𝜓=(2𝑒𝑧𝑛0𝜀𝜀0)sinh(𝑧𝑒𝜓𝑘b𝑇)∇2�=(2��0��0)⁡sinh(��b�)

(18)where n

₀ is the ion bulk concentration, z is the ionic valence, and ε

₀ is the electric permittivity in the vacuum. Under low electric potential conditions, an even further simplified model to illustrate the EOF phenomena is the Debye–Hückel (DH) model. The DH model is derived by obtaining a charge density term by expanding the exponential term of the Boltzmann equation in a Taylor series.

4.2.2. EOF Modeling for Viscoelastic Fluids

Many studies through numerical modeling were performed to obtain a deeper understanding of the effect exhibited by externally applied electric fields on viscoelastic flow in microchannels under various geometrical designs. Bello et al.

(83) found that methylcellulose solution, a non-Newtonian polymer solution, resulted in stronger electro-osmotic mobility in experiments when compared to the predictions by the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski equation, which is commonly used to define the velocity of EOF of a Newtonian fluid. Being one of the pioneers to identify the discrepancies between the EOF of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, Bello et al. attributed such discrepancies to the presence of a very high shear rate in the EDL, resulting in a change in the orientation of the polymer molecules. Park and Lee

(84) utilized the FVM to solve the PB equation for the characterization of the electric field induced force. In the study, the concept of fractional calculus for the Oldroyd-B model was adapted to illustrate the elastic and memory effects of viscoelastic fluids in a straight microchannel They observed that fluid elasticity and increased ratio of viscoelastic fluid contribution to overall fluid viscosity had a significant impact on the volumetric flow rate and sensitivity of velocity to electric field strength compared to Newtonian fluids. Afonso et al.

(85) derived an analytical expression for EOF of viscoelastic fluid between parallel plates using the DH model to account for a zeta potential condition below 25 mV. The study established the understanding of the electro-osmotic viscoelastic fluid flow under low zeta potential conditions. Apart from the electrokinetic forces, pressure forces can also be coupled with EOF to generate a unique fluid flow behavior within the microchannel. Sousa et al.

(86) analytically studied the flow of a standard viscoelastic solution by combining the pressure gradient force with an externally applied electric force. It was found that, at a near wall skimming layer and the outer layer away from the wall, macromolecules migrating away from surface walls in viscoelastic fluids are observed. In the study, the Phan-Thien Tanner (PTT) constitutive model is utilized to characterize the viscoelastic properties of the solution. The approach is found to be valid when the EDL is much thinner than the skimming layer under an enhanced flow rate. Zhao and Yang

(87) solved the PB equation and Carreau model for the characterization of the EOF mechanism and non-Newtonian fluid respectively through the FEM. The numerical results depict that, different from the EOF of Newtonian fluids, non-Newtonian fluids led to an increase of electro-osmotic mobility for shear thinning fluids but the opposite for shear thickening fluids.Like other fluid transport driving forces, EOF within unique geometrical layouts also portrays unique transport phenomena. Pimenta and Alves

(88) utilized the FVM to perform numerical simulations of the EOF of viscoelastic fluids considering the PB equation and the Oldroyd-B model, in a cross-slot and flow-focusing microdevices. It was found that electroelastic instabilities are formed due to the development of large stresses inside the EDL with streamlined curvature at geometry corners. Bezerra et al.

(89) used the FDM to numerically analyze the vortex formation and flow instability from an electro-osmotic non-Newtonian fluid flow in a microchannel with a nozzle geometry and parallel wall geometry setting. The PNP equation is utilized to characterize the charge motion in the EOF and the PTT model for non-Newtonian flow characterization. A constriction geometry is commonly utilized in blood flow adapted in LOC systems due to the change in blood flow behavior under narrow dimensions in a microchannel. Ji et al.

(90) recently studied the EOF of viscoelastic fluid in a constriction microchannel connected by two relatively big reservoirs on both ends (as seen in Figure 5) filled with the polyacrylamide polymer solution, a viscoelastic fluid, and an incompressible monovalent binary electrolyte solution KCl.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a negatively charged constriction microchannel connected to two reservoirs at both ends. An electro-osmotic flow is induced in the system by the induced potential difference between the anode and cathode. (90) Reproduced with permission from ref (90). Copyright 2021 The Authors, under the terms of the Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0) License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

In studying the EOF of viscoelastic fluids, the Oldroyd-B model is often utilized to characterize the polymeric stress tensor and the deformation rate of the fluid. The Oldroyd-B model is expressed as follows:

𝜏=𝜂p𝜆(𝐜−𝐈)�=�p�(�−�)

(19)where η

_p, λ, c, and I represent the polymer dynamic viscosity, polymer relaxation time, symmetric conformation tensor of the polymer molecules, and the identity matrix, respectively.A log-conformation tensor approach is taken to prevent convergence difficulty induced by the viscoelastic properties. The conformation tensor (c) in the polymeric stress tensor term is redefined by a new tensor (Θ) based on the natural logarithm of the c. The new tensor is defined as

Θ=ln(𝐜)=𝐑ln(𝚲)𝐑Θ=ln(�)=�⁡ln(�)�

(20)in which Λ is the diagonal matrix and R is the orthogonal matrix.Under the new conformation tensor, the induced EOF of a viscoelastic fluid is governed by the continuity and N–S equations adapting the Oldroyd-B model, which is expressed as

∂𝚯∂𝑡+𝐮·∇𝚯=𝛀Θ−ΘΩ+2𝐁+1𝜆(eΘ−𝐈)∂�∂�+�·∇�=�Θ−ΘΩ+2�+1�(eΘ−�)

(21)where Ω and B represent the anti-symmetric matrix and the symmetric traceless matrix of the decomposition of the velocity gradient tensor ∇u, respectively. The conformation tensor can be recovered by c = exp(Θ). The PB model and Laplace equation are utilized to characterize the charged channel wall induced potential and the externally applied potential.The governing equations are numerically solved through the FVM by RheoTool,

(42) an open-source viscoelastic EOF solver on the OpenFOAM platform. A SIMPLEC (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations-Consistent) algorithm was applied to solve the velocity-pressure coupling. The pressure field and velocity field were computed by the PCG (Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient) solver and the PBiCG (Preconditioned Biconjugate Gradient) solver, respectively.Ranging magnitudes of an applied electric field or fluid concentration induce both different streamlines and velocity magnitudes at various locations and times of the microchannel. In the study performed by Ji et al.,

(90) notable fluctuation of streamlines and vortex formation is formed at the upper stream entrance of the constriction as shown in Figure 6(a) and (b), respectively, due to the increase of electrokinetic effect, which is seen as a result of the increase in polymeric stress (τ

_xx).

(90) The contraction geometry enhances the EOF velocity within the constriction channel under high E

_app condition (600 V/cm). Such phenomena can be attributed to the dependence of electro-osmotic viscoelastic fluid flow on the system wall surface and bulk fluid properties.

(91)

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of vortex formation and streamlines of EOF depicting flow instability at (a) 1.71 s and (b) 1.75 s. Spatial distribution of the elastic normal stress at (c) high E_app condition. Streamline of an electro-osmotic flow under E_app of 600 V/cm (90) for (d) non-Newtonian and (e) Newtonian fluid through a constriction geometry. Reproduced with permission from ref (90). Copyright 2021 The Authors, under the terms of the Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0) License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

As elastic normal stress exceeds the local shear stress, flow instability and vortex formation occur. The induced elastic stress under EOF not only enhances the instability of the flow but often generates an irregular secondary flow leading to strong disturbance.

(92) It is also vital to consider the effect of the constriction layout of microchannels on the alteration of the field strength within the system. The contraction geometry enhances a larger electric field strength compared with other locations of the channel outside the constriction region, resulting in a higher velocity gradient and stronger extension on the polymer within the viscoelastic solution. Following the high shear flow condition, a higher magnitude of stretch for polymer molecules in viscoelastic fluids exhibits larger elastic stresses and enhancement of vortex formation at the region.

(93)As shown in Figure 6(c), significant elastic normal stress occurs at the inlet of the constriction microchannel. Such occurrence of a polymeric flow can be attributed to the dominating elongational flow, giving rise to high deformation of the polymers within the viscoelastic fluid flow, resulting in higher elastic stress from the polymers. Such phenomena at the entrance result in the difference in velocity streamline as circled in Figure 6(d) compared to that of the Newtonian fluid at the constriction entrance in Figure 6(e).

(90) The difference between the Newtonian and polymer solution at the exit, as circled in Figure 6(d) and (e), can be attributed to the extrudate swell effect of polymers

(94) within the viscoelastic fluid flow. The extrudate swell effect illustrates that, as polymers emerge from the constriction exit, they tend to contract in the flow direction and grow in the normal direction, resulting in an extrudate diameter greater than the channel size. The deformation of polymers within the polymeric flow at both the entrance and exit of the contraction channel facilitates the change in shear stress conditions of the flow, leading to the alteration in streamlines of flows for each region.

4.3. EOF Applications in LOC Systems

4.3.1. Mixing in LOC Systems

Rather than relying on the micromixing controlled by molecular diffusion under low Reynolds number conditions, active mixers actively leverage convective instability and vortex formation induced by electro-osmotic flows from alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) electric fields. Such adaptation is recognized as significant breakthroughs for promotion of fluid mixing in chemical and biological applications such as drug delivery, medical diagnostics, chemical synthesis, and so on.

(95)Many researchers proposed novel designs of electro-osmosis micromixers coupled with numerical simulations in conjunction with experimental findings to increase their understanding of the role of flow instability and vortex formation in the mixing process under electrokinetic phenomena. Matsubara and Narumi

(96) numerically modeled the mixing process in a microchannel with four electrodes on each side of the microchannel wall, which generated a disruption through unstable electro-osmotic vortices. It was found that particle mixing was sensitive to both the convection effect induced by the main and secondary vortex within the micromixer and the change in oscillation frequency caused by the supplied AC voltage when the Reynolds number was varied. Qaderi et al.

(97) adapted the PNP equation to numerically study the effect of the geometry and zeta potential configuration of the microchannel on the mixing process with a combined electro-osmotic pressure driven flow. It was reported that the application of heterogeneous zeta potential configuration enhances the mixing efficiency by around 23% while the height of the hurdles increases the mixing efficiency at most 48.1%. Cho et al.

(98) utilized the PB model and Laplace equation to numerically simulate the electro-osmotic non-Newtonian fluid mixing process within a wavy and block layout of microchannel walls. The Power Law model is adapted to describe the fluid rheological characteristic. It was found that shear-thinning fluids possess a higher volumetric flow rate, which could result in poorer mixing efficiency compared to that of Newtonian fluids. Numerous studies have revealed that flow instability and vortex generation, in particular secondary vortices produced by barriers or greater magnitudes of heterogeneous zeta potential distribution, enhance mixing by increasing bulk flow velocity and reducing flow distance.To better understand the mechanism of disturbance formed in the system due to externally applied forces, known as electrokinetic instability, literature often utilize the Rayleigh (Ra) number,

(1) as described below:

𝑅𝑎𝑣=𝑢ev𝑢eo=(𝛾−1𝛾+1)2𝑊𝛿2𝐸el2𝐻2𝜁𝛿Ra�=�ev�eo=(�−1�+1)2��2�el2�2��

(22)where γ is the conductivity ratio of the two streams and can be written as

𝛾=𝜎el,H𝜎el,L�=�el,H�el,L. The Ra number characterizes the ratio between electroviscous and electro-osmotic flow. A high Ra

_v value often results in good mixing. It is evident that fluid properties such as the conductivity (σ) of the two streams play a key role in the formation of disturbances to enhance mixing in microsystems. At the same time, electrokinetic parameters like the zeta potential (ζ) in the Ra number is critical in the characterization of electro-osmotic velocity and a slip boundary condition at the microchannel wall.To understand the mixing result along the channel, the concentration field can be defined and simulated under the assumption of steady state conditions and constant diffusion coefficient for each of the working fluid within the system through the convection–diffusion equation as below:

∂𝑐𝒊∂𝑡+∇⇀(𝑐𝑖𝑢⇀−𝐷𝑖∇⇀𝑐𝒊)=0∂��∂�+∇⇀(��⇀−��∇⇀��)=0

(23)where c

_i is the species concentration of species i and D

_i is the diffusion coefficient of the corresponding species.The standard deviation of concentration (σ

_sd) can be adapted to evaluate the mixing quality of the system.

(97) The standard deviation for concentration at a specific portion of the channel may be calculated using the equation below:

𝜎sd=∫10(𝐶∗(𝑦∗)−𝐶m)2d𝑦∗∫10d𝑦∗⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯�sd=∫01(�*(�*)−�m)2d�*∫01d�*

(24)where C*(y*) and C

_m are the non-dimensional concentration profile and the mean concentration at the portion, respectively. C* is the non-dimensional concentration and can be calculated as

𝐶∗=𝐶𝐶ref�*=��ref, where C

_ref is the reference concentration defined as the bulk solution concentration. The mean concentration profile can be calculated as

𝐶m=∫10(𝐶∗(𝑦∗)d𝑦∗∫10d𝑦∗�m=∫01(�*(�*)d�*∫01d�*. With the standard deviation of concentration, the mixing efficiency

(97) can then be calculated as below:

𝜀𝑥=1−𝜎sd𝜎sd,0��=1−�sd�sd,0

(25)where σ

_sd_,0 is the standard derivation of the case of no mixing. The value of the mixing efficiency is typically utilized in conjunction with the simulated flow field and concentration field to explore the effect of geometrical and electrokinetic parameters on the optimization of the mixing results.

5. Summary

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

5.1. Conclusion

Viscoelastic fluids such as blood flow in LOC systems are an essential topic to proceed with diagnostic analysis and research through microdevices in the biomedical and pharmaceutical industries. The complex blood flow behavior is tightly controlled by the viscoelastic characteristics of blood such as the dynamic viscosity and the elastic property of RBCs under various shear rate conditions. Furthermore, the flow behaviors under varied driving forces promote an array of microfluidic transport phenomena that are critical to the management of blood flow and other adapted viscoelastic fluids in LOC systems. This review addressed the blood flow phenomena, the complicated interplay between shear rate and blood flow behaviors, and their numerical modeling under LOC systems through the lens of the viscoelasticity characteristic. Furthermore, a theoretical understanding of capillary forces and externally applied electric forces leads to an in-depth investigation of the relationship between blood flow patterns and the key parameters of the two driving forces, the latter of which is introduced through the lens of viscoelastic fluids, coupling numerical modeling to improve the knowledge of blood flow manipulation in LOC systems. The flow disturbances triggered by the EOF of viscoelastic fluids and their impact on blood flow patterns have been deeply investigated due to their important role and applications in LOC devices. Continuous advancements of various numerical modeling methods with experimental findings through more efficient and less computationally heavy methods have served as an encouraging sign of establishing more accurate illustrations of the mechanisms for multiphase blood and other viscoelastic fluid flow transport phenomena driven by various forces. Such progress is fundamental for the manipulation of unique transport phenomena, such as the generated disturbances, to optimize functionalities offered by microdevices in LOC systems.

The following section will provide further insights into the employment of studied blood transport phenomena to improve the functionality of micro devices adapting LOC technology. A discussion of the novel roles that external driving forces play in microfluidic flow behaviors is also provided. Limitations in the computational modeling of blood flow and electrokinetic phenomena in LOC systems will also be emphasized, which may provide valuable insights for future research endeavors. These discussions aim to provide guidance and opportunities for new paths in the ongoing development of LOC devices that adapt blood flow.

5.2. Future Directions

5.2.1. Electro-osmosis Mixing in LOC Systems

Despite substantial research, mixing results through flow instability and vortex formation phenomena induced by electro-osmotic mixing still deviate from the effective mixing results offered by chaotic mixing results such as those seen in turbulent flows. However, recent discoveries of a mixing phenomenon that is generally observed under turbulent flows are found within electro-osmosis micromixers under low Reynolds number conditions. Zhao

(99) experimentally discovered a rapid mixing process in an AC applied micromixer, where the power spectrum of concentration under an applied voltage of 20 V

_p-p induces a −5/3 slope within a frequency range. This value of the slope is considered as the O–C spectrum in macroflows, which is often visible under relatively high Re conditions, such as the Taylor microscale Reynolds number Re > 500 in turbulent flows.

(100) However, the Re value in the studied system is less than 1 at the specific location and applied voltage. A secondary flow is also suggested to occur close to microchannel walls, being attributed to the increase of convective instability within the system.Despite the experimental phenomenon proposed by Zhao et al.,

(99) the range of effects induced by vital parameters of an EOF mixing system on the enhanced mixing results and mechanisms of disturbance generated by the turbulent-like flow instability is not further characterized. Such a gap in knowledge may hinder the adaptability and commercialization of the discovery of micromixers. One of the parameters for further evaluation is the conductivity gradient of the fluid flow. A relatively strong conductivity gradient (5000:1) was adopted in the system due to the conductive properties of the two fluids. The high conductivity gradients may contribute to the relatively large Rayleigh number and differences in EDL layer thickness, resulting in an unusual disturbance in laminar flow conditions and enhanced mixing results. However, high conductivity gradients are not always achievable by the working fluids due to diverse fluid properties. The reliance on turbulent-like phenomena and rapid mixing results in a large conductivity gradient should be established to prevent the limited application of fluids for the mixing system. In addition, the proposed system utilizes distinct zeta potential distributions at the top and bottom walls due to their difference in material choices, which may be attributed to the flow instability phenomena. Further studies should be made on varying zeta potential magnitude and distribution to evaluate their effect on the slip boundary conditions of the flow and the large shear rate condition close to the channel wall of EOF. Such a study can potentially offer an optimized condition in zeta potential magnitude through material choices and geometrical layout of the zeta potential for better mixing results and manipulation of mixing fluid dynamics. The two vital parameters mentioned above can be varied with the aid of numerical simulation to understand the effect of parameters on the interaction between electro-osmotic forces and electroviscous forces. At the same time, the relationship of developed streamlines of the simulated velocity and concentration field, following their relationship with the mixing results, under the impact of these key parameters can foster more insight into the range of impact that the two parameters have on the proposed phenomena and the microfluidic dynamic principles of disturbances.

In addition, many of the current investigations of electrokinetic mixers commonly emphasize the fluid dynamics of mixing for Newtonian fluids, while the utilization of biofluids, primarily viscoelastic fluids such as blood, and their distinctive response under shear forces in these novel mixing processes of LOC systems are significantly less studied. To develop more compatible microdevice designs and efficient mixing outcomes for the biomedical industry, it is necessary to fill the knowledge gaps in the literature on electro-osmotic mixing for biofluids, where properties of elasticity, dynamic viscosity, and intricate relationship with shear flow from the fluid are further considered.

5.2.2. Electro-osmosis Separation in LOC Systems

Particle separation in LOC devices, particularly in biological research and diagnostics, is another area where disturbances may play a significant role in optimization.

(101) Plasma analysis in LOC systems under precise control of blood flow phenomena and blood/plasma separation procedures can detect vital information about infectious diseases from particular antibodies and foreign nucleic acids for medical treatments, diagnostics, and research,

(102) offering more efficient results and simple operating procedures compared to that of the traditional centrifugation method for blood and plasma separation. However, the adaptability of LOC devices for blood and plasma separation is often hindered by microchannel clogging, where flow velocity and plasma yield from LOC devices is reduced due to occasional RBC migration and aggregation at the filtration entrance of microdevices.

(103)It is important to note that the EOF induces flow instability close to microchannel walls, which may provide further solutions to clogging for the separation process of the LOC systems. Mohammadi et al.

(104) offered an anti-clogging effect of RBCs at the blood and plasma separating device filtration entry, adjacent to the surface wall, through RBC disaggregation under high shear rate conditions generated by a forward and reverse EOF direction.

Further theoretical and numerical research can be conducted to characterize the effect of high shear rate conditions near microchannel walls toward the detachment of binding blood cells on surfaces and the reversibility of aggregation. Through numerical modeling with varying electrokinetic parameters to induce different degrees of disturbances or shear conditions at channel walls, it may be possible to optimize and better understand the process of disrupting the forces that bind cells to surface walls and aggregated cells at filtration pores. RBCs that migrate close to microchannel walls are often attracted by the adhesion force between the RBC and the solid surface originating from the van der Waals forces. Following RBC migration and attachment by adhesive forces adjacent to the microchannel walls as shown in Figure 7, the increase in viscosity at the region causes a lower shear condition and encourages RBC aggregation (cell–cell interaction), which clogs filtering pores or microchannels and reduces flow velocity at filtration region. Both the impact that shear forces and disturbances may induce on cell binding forces with surface walls and other cells leading to aggregation may suggest further characterization. Kinetic parameters such as activation energy and the rate-determining step for cell binding composition attachment and detachment should be considered for modeling the dynamics of RBCs and blood flows under external forces in LOC separation devices.

Figure 7. Schematic representations of clogging at a microchannel pore following the sequence of RBC migration, cell attachment to channel walls, and aggregation. (105) Reproduced with permission from ref (105). Copyright 2018 The Authors under the terms of the Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0) License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

5.2.3. Relationship between External Forces and Microfluidic Systems

In blood flow, a thicker CFL suggests a lower blood viscosity, suggesting a complex relationship between shear stress and shear rate, affecting the blood viscosity and blood flow. Despite some experimental and numerical studies on electro-osmotic non-Newtonian fluid flow, limited literature has performed an in-depth investigation of the role that applied electric forces and other external forces could play in the process of CFL formation. Additional studies on how shear rates from external forces affect CFL formation and microfluidic flow dynamics can shed light on the mechanism of the contribution induced by external driving forces to the development of a separate phase of layer, similar to CFL, close to the microchannel walls and distinct from the surrounding fluid within the system, then influencing microfluidic flow dynamics.One of the mechanisms of phenomena to be explored is the formation of the Exclusion Zone (EZ) region following a “Self-Induced Flow” (SIF) phenomenon discovered by Li and Pollack,

(106) as shown in Figure 8(a) and (b), respectively. A spontaneous sustained axial flow is observed when hydrophilic materials are immersed in water, resulting in the buildup of a negative layer of charges, defined as the EZ, after water molecules absorb infrared radiation (IR) energy and break down into H and OH

⁺^–.

Figure 8. Schematic representations of (a) the Exclusion Zone region and (b) the Self Induced Flow through visualization of microsphere movement within a microchannel. (106) Reproduced with permission from ref (106). Copyright 2020 The Authors under the terms of the Creative Commons (CC BY 4.0) License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Despite the finding of such a phenomenon, the specific mechanism and role of IR energy have yet to be defined for the process of EZ development. To further develop an understanding of the role of IR energy in such phenomena, a feasible study may be seen through the lens of the relationships between external forces and microfluidic flow. In the phenomena, the increase of SIF velocity under a rise of IR radiation resonant characteristics is shown in the participation of the external electric field near the microchannel walls under electro-osmotic viscoelastic fluid flow systems. The buildup of negative charges at the hydrophilic surfaces in EZ is analogous to the mechanism of electrical double layer formation. Indeed, research has initiated the exploration of the core mechanisms for EZ formation through the lens of the electrokinetic phenomena.

(107) Such a similarity of the role of IR energy and the transport phenomena of SIF with electrokinetic phenomena paves the way for the definition of the unknown SIF phenomena and EZ formation. Furthermore, Li and Pollack

(106) suggest whether CFL formation might contribute to a SIF of blood using solely IR radiation, a commonly available source of energy in nature, as an external driving force. The proposition may be proven feasible with the presence of the CFL region next to the negatively charged hydrophilic endothelial glycocalyx layer, coating the luminal side of blood vessels.

(108) Further research can dive into the resonating characteristics between the formation of the CFL region next to the hydrophilic endothelial glycocalyx layer and that of the EZ formation close to hydrophilic microchannel walls. Indeed, an increase in IR energy is known to rapidly accelerate EZ formation and SIF velocity, depicting similarity to the increase in the magnitude of electric field forces and greater shear rates at microchannel walls affecting CFL formation and EOF velocity. Such correlation depicts a future direction in whether SIF blood flow can be observed and characterized theoretically further through the lens of the relationship between blood flow and shear forces exhibited by external energy.

The intricate link between the CFL and external forces, more specifically the externally applied electric field, can receive further attention to provide a more complete framework for the mechanisms between IR radiation and EZ formation. Such characterization may also contribute to a greater comprehension of the role IR can play in CFL formation next to the endothelial glycocalyx layer as well as its role as a driving force to propel blood flow, similar to the SIF, but without the commonly assumed pressure force from heart contraction as a source of driving force.

5.3. Challenges

Although there have been significant improvements in blood flow modeling under LOC systems over the past decade, there are still notable constraints that may require special attention for numerical simulation applications to benefit the adaptability of the designs and functionalities of LOC devices. Several points that require special attention are mentioned below:

1.	The majority of CFD models operate under the relationship between the viscoelasticity of blood and the shear rate conditions of flow. The relative effect exhibited by the presence of highly populated RBCs in whole blood and their forces amongst the cells themselves under complex flows often remains unclearly defined. Furthermore, the full range of cell populations in whole blood requires a much more computational load for numerical modeling. Therefore, a vital goal for future research is to evaluate a reduced modeling method where the impact of cell–cell interaction on the viscoelastic property of blood is considered.
2.	Current computational methods on hemodynamics rely on continuum models based upon non-Newtonian rheology at the macroscale rather than at molecular and cellular levels. Careful considerations should be made for the development of a constructive framework for the physical and temporal scales of micro/nanoscale systems to evaluate the intricate relationship between fluid driving forces, dynamic viscosity, and elasticity.
3.	Viscoelastic fluids under the impact of externally applied electric forces often deviate from the assumptions of no-slip boundary conditions due to the unique flow conditions induced by externally applied forces. Furthermore, the mechanism of vortex formation and viscoelastic flow instability at laminar flow conditions should be better defined through the lens of the microfluidic flow phenomenon to optimize the prediction of viscoelastic flow across different geometrical layouts. Mathematical models and numerical methods are needed to better predict such disturbance caused by external forces and the viscoelasticity of fluids at such a small scale.
4.	Under practical situations, zeta potential distribution at channel walls frequently deviates from the common assumption of a constant distribution because of manufacturing faults or inherent surface charges prior to the introduction of electrokinetic influence. These discrepancies frequently lead to inconsistent surface potential distribution, such as excess positive ions at relatively more negatively charged walls. Accordingly, unpredicted vortex formation and flow instability may occur. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to these discrepancies and how they could trigger the transport process and unexpected results of a microdevice.

Author Information

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

Corresponding Authors
- Zhe Chen – Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China; Email: zaccooky@sjtu.edu.cn
- Bo Ouyang – Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China; Email: bouy93@sjtu.edu.cn
- Zheng-Hong Luo – Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9011-6020; Email: luozh@sjtu.edu.cn
Authors
- Bin-Jie Lai – Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China; https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8133-5381
- Li-Tao Zhu – Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, P. R. China; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6514-8864
NotesThe authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 22238005) and the Postdoctoral Research Foundation of China (No. GZC20231576).

Vocabulary

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

Microfluidics	the field of technological and scientific study that investigates fluid flow in channels with dimensions between 1 and 1000 μm
Lab-on-a-Chip Technology	the field of research and technological development aimed at integrating the micro/nanofluidic characteristics to conduct laboratory processes on handheld devices
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)	the method utilizing computational abilities to predict physical fluid flow behaviors mathematically through solving the governing equations of corresponding fluid flows
Shear Rate	the rate of change in velocity where one layer of fluid moves past the adjacent layer
Viscoelasticity	the property holding both elasticity and viscosity characteristics relying on the magnitude of applied shear stress and time-dependent strain
Electro-osmosis	the flow of fluid under an applied electric field when charged solid surface is in contact with the bulk fluid
Vortex	the rotating motion of a fluid revolving an axis line

References

ARTICLE SECTIONS

Jump To

This article references 108 other publications.

1Neethirajan, S.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M.; Wu, D.; Nandagopal, S.; Lin, F. Microfluidics for food, agriculture and biosystems industries. Lab Chip 2011, 11 (9), 1574– 1586, DOI: 10.1039/c0lc00230eView Google Scholar
2Whitesides, G. M. The origins and the future of microfluidics. Nature 2006, 442 (7101), 368– 373, DOI: 10.1038/nature05058View Google Scholar
3Burklund, A.; Tadimety, A.; Nie, Y.; Hao, N.; Zhang, J. X. J. Chapter One – Advances in diagnostic microfluidics; Elsevier, 2020; DOI: DOI: 10.1016/bs.acc.2019.08.001 .View Google Scholar
4Abdulbari, H. A. Chapter 12 – Lab-on-a-chip for analysis of blood. In Nanotechnology for Hematology, Blood Transfusion, and Artificial Blood; Denizli, A., Nguyen, T. A., Rajan, M., Alam, M. F., Rahman, K., Eds.; Elsevier, 2022; pp 265– 283.View Google Scholar
5Vladisavljević, G. T.; Khalid, N.; Neves, M. A.; Kuroiwa, T.; Nakajima, M.; Uemura, K.; Ichikawa, S.; Kobayashi, I. Industrial lab-on-a-chip: Design, applications and scale-up for drug discovery and delivery. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 2013, 65 (11), 1626– 1663, DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.07.017View Google Scholar
6Kersaudy-Kerhoas, M.; Dhariwal, R.; Desmulliez, M. P. Y.; Jouvet, L. Hydrodynamic blood plasma separation in microfluidic channels. Microfluid. Nanofluid. 2010, 8 (1), 105– 114, DOI: 10.1007/s10404-009-0450-5View Google Scholar
7Popel, A. S.; Johnson, P. C. Microcirculation and Hemorheology. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2005, 37 (1), 43– 69, DOI: 10.1146/annurev.fluid.37.042604.133933View Google Scholar
8Fedosov, D. A.; Peltomäki, M.; Gompper, G. Deformation and dynamics of red blood cells in flow through cylindrical microchannels. Soft Matter 2014, 10 (24), 4258– 4267, DOI: 10.1039/C4SM00248BView Google Scholar
9Chakraborty, S. Dynamics of capillary flow of blood into a microfluidic channel. Lab Chip 2005, 5 (4), 421– 430, DOI: 10.1039/b414566fView Google Scholar
10Tomaiuolo, G.; Guido, S. Start-up shape dynamics of red blood cells in microcapillary flow. Microvascular Research 2011, 82 (1), 35– 41, DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2011.03.004View Google Scholar
11Sherwood, J. M.; Dusting, J.; Kaliviotis, E.; Balabani, S. The effect of red blood cell aggregation on velocity and cell-depleted layer characteristics of blood in a bifurcating microchannel. Biomicrofluidics 2012, 6 (2), 24119, DOI: 10.1063/1.4717755View Google Scholar
12Nader, E.; Skinner, S.; Romana, M.; Fort, R.; Lemonne, N.; Guillot, N.; Gauthier, A.; Antoine-Jonville, S.; Renoux, C.; Hardy-Dessources, M.-D. Blood Rheology: Key Parameters, Impact on Blood Flow, Role in Sickle Cell Disease and Effects of Exercise. Frontiers in Physiology 2019, 10, 01329, DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01329View Google Scholar
13Trejo-Soto, C.; Lázaro, G. R.; Pagonabarraga, I.; Hernández-Machado, A. Microfluidics Approach to the Mechanical Properties of Red Blood Cell Membrane and Their Effect on Blood Rheology. Membranes 2022, 12 (2), 217, DOI: 10.3390/membranes12020217View Google Scholar
14Wagner, C.; Steffen, P.; Svetina, S. Aggregation of red blood cells: From rouleaux to clot formation. Comptes Rendus Physique 2013, 14 (6), 459– 469, DOI: 10.1016/j.crhy.2013.04.004View Google Scholar
15Kim, H.; Zhbanov, A.; Yang, S. Microfluidic Systems for Blood and Blood Cell Characterization. Biosensors 2023, 13 (1), 13, DOI: 10.3390/bios13010013View Google Scholar
16Fåhræus, R.; Lindqvist, T. THE VISCOSITY OF THE BLOOD IN NARROW CAPILLARY TUBES. American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content 1931, 96 (3), 562– 568, DOI: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1931.96.3.562View Google Scholar
17Ascolese, M.; Farina, A.; Fasano, A. The Fåhræus-Lindqvist effect in small blood vessels: how does it help the heart?. J. Biol. Phys. 2019, 45 (4), 379– 394, DOI: 10.1007/s10867-019-09534-4View Google Scholar
18Bento, D.; Fernandes, C. S.; Miranda, J. M.; Lima, R. In vitro blood flow visualizations and cell-free layer (CFL) measurements in a microchannel network. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 2019, 109, 109847, DOI: 10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2019.109847View Google Scholar
19Namgung, B.; Ong, P. K.; Wong, Y. H.; Lim, D.; Chun, K. J.; Kim, S. A comparative study of histogram-based thresholding methods for the determination of cell-free layer width in small blood vessels. Physiological Measurement 2010, 31 (9), N61, DOI: 10.1088/0967-3334/31/9/N01View Google Scholar
20Hymel, S. J.; Lan, H.; Fujioka, H.; Khismatullin, D. B. Cell trapping in Y-junction microchannels: A numerical study of the bifurcation angle effect in inertial microfluidics. Phys. Fluids (1994) 2019, 31 (8), 082003, DOI: 10.1063/1.5113516View Google Scholar
21Li, X.; Popel, A. S.; Karniadakis, G. E. Blood-plasma separation in Y-shaped bifurcating microfluidic channels: a dissipative particle dynamics simulation study. Phys. Biol. 2012, 9 (2), 026010, DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/9/2/026010View Google Scholar
22Yin, X.; Thomas, T.; Zhang, J. Multiple red blood cell flows through microvascular bifurcations: Cell free layer, cell trajectory, and hematocrit separation. Microvascular Research 2013, 89, 47– 56, DOI: 10.1016/j.mvr.2013.05.002View Google Scholar
23Shibeshi, S. S.; Collins, W. E. The Rheology of Blood Flow in a Branched Arterial System. Appl. Rheol 2005, 15 (6), 398– 405, DOI: 10.1515/arh-2005-0020View Google Scholar
24Sequeira, A.; Janela, J. An Overview of Some Mathematical Models of Blood Rheology. In A Portrait of State-of-the-Art Research at the Technical University of Lisbon; Pereira, M. S., Ed.; Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, 2007; pp 65– 87.View Google Scholar
25Walburn, F. J.; Schneck, D. J. A constitutive equation for whole human blood. Biorheology 1976, 13, 201– 210, DOI: 10.3233/BIR-1976-13307View Google Scholar
26Quemada, D. A rheological model for studying the hematocrit dependence of red cell-red cell and red cell-protein interactions in blood. Biorheology 1981, 18, 501– 516, DOI: 10.3233/BIR-1981-183-615View Google Scholar
27Varchanis, S.; Dimakopoulos, Y.; Wagner, C.; Tsamopoulos, J. How viscoelastic is human blood plasma?. Soft Matter 2018, 14 (21), 4238– 4251, DOI: 10.1039/C8SM00061AView Google Scholar
28Apostolidis, A. J.; Moyer, A. P.; Beris, A. N. Non-Newtonian effects in simulations of coronary arterial blood flow. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 2016, 233, 155– 165, DOI: 10.1016/j.jnnfm.2016.03.008View Google Scholar
29Luo, X. Y.; Kuang, Z. B. A study on the constitutive equation of blood. J. Biomech. 1992, 25 (8), 929– 934, DOI: 10.1016/0021-9290(92)90233-QView Google Scholar
30Oldroyd, J. G.; Wilson, A. H. On the formulation of rheological equations of state. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences 1950, 200 (1063), 523– 541, DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1950.0035View Google Scholar
31Prado, G.; Farutin, A.; Misbah, C.; Bureau, L. Viscoelastic transient of confined red blood cells. Biophys J. 2015, 108 (9), 2126– 2136, DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2015.03.046View Google Scholar
32Huang, C. R.; Pan, W. D.; Chen, H. Q.; Copley, A. L. Thixotropic properties of whole blood from healthy human subjects. Biorheology 1987, 24 (6), 795– 801, DOI: 10.3233/BIR-1987-24630View Google Scholar
33Anand, M.; Kwack, J.; Masud, A. A new generalized Oldroyd-B model for blood flow in complex geometries. International Journal of Engineering Science 2013, 72, 78– 88, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijengsci.2013.06.009View Google Scholar
34Horner, J. S.; Armstrong, M. J.; Wagner, N. J.; Beris, A. N. Investigation of blood rheology under steady and unidirectional large amplitude oscillatory shear. J. Rheol. 2018, 62 (2), 577– 591, DOI: 10.1122/1.5017623View Google Scholar
35Horner, J. S.; Armstrong, M. J.; Wagner, N. J.; Beris, A. N. Measurements of human blood viscoelasticity and thixotropy under steady and transient shear and constitutive modeling thereof. J. Rheol. 2019, 63 (5), 799– 813, DOI: 10.1122/1.5108737View Google Scholar
36Armstrong, M.; Tussing, J. A methodology for adding thixotropy to Oldroyd-8 family of viscoelastic models for characterization of human blood. Phys. Fluids 2020, 32 (9), 094111, DOI: 10.1063/5.0022501View Google Scholar
37Crank, J.; Nicolson, P. A practical method for numerical evaluation of solutions of partial differential equations of the heat-conduction type. Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 1947, 43 (1), 50– 67, DOI: 10.1017/S0305004100023197View Google Scholar
38Clough, R. W. Original formulation of the finite element method. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 1990, 7 (2), 89– 101, DOI: 10.1016/0168-874X(90)90001-UView Google Scholar
39Liu, W. K.; Liu, Y.; Farrell, D.; Zhang, L.; Wang, X. S.; Fukui, Y.; Patankar, N.; Zhang, Y.; Bajaj, C.; Lee, J.Immersed finite element method and its applications to biological systems. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 2006, 195 (13), 1722– 1749, DOI: 10.1016/j.cma.2005.05.049View Google Scholar
40Lopes, D.; Agujetas, R.; Puga, H.; Teixeira, J.; Lima, R.; Alejo, J. P.; Ferrera, C. Analysis of finite element and finite volume methods for fluid-structure interaction simulation of blood flow in a real stenosed artery. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 2021, 207, 106650, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2021.106650View Google Scholar
41Favero, J. L.; Secchi, A. R.; Cardozo, N. S. M.; Jasak, H. Viscoelastic flow analysis using the software OpenFOAM and differential constitutive equations. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 2010, 165 (23), 1625– 1636, DOI: 10.1016/j.jnnfm.2010.08.010View Google Scholar
42Pimenta, F.; Alves, M. A. Stabilization of an open-source finite-volume solver for viscoelastic fluid flows. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 2017, 239, 85– 104, DOI: 10.1016/j.jnnfm.2016.12.002View Google Scholar
43Chee, C. Y.; Lee, H. P.; Lu, C. Using 3D fluid-structure interaction model to analyse the biomechanical properties of erythrocyte. Phys. Lett. A 2008, 372 (9), 1357– 1362, DOI: 10.1016/j.physleta.2007.09.067View Google Scholar
44Xu, D.; Kaliviotis, E.; Munjiza, A.; Avital, E.; Ji, C.; Williams, J. Large scale simulation of red blood cell aggregation in shear flows. J. Biomech. 2013, 46 (11), 1810– 1817, DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.05.010View Google Scholar
45Johnson, K. L.; Kendall, K.; Roberts, A. Surface energy and the contact of elastic solids. Proceedings of the royal society of London. A. mathematical and physical sciences 1971, 324 (1558), 301– 313, DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1971.0141View Google Scholar
46Shi, L.; Pan, T.-W.; Glowinski, R. Deformation of a single red blood cell in bounded Poiseuille flows. Phys. Rev. E 2012, 85 (1), 016307, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevE.85.016307View Google Scholar
47Yoon, D.; You, D. Continuum modeling of deformation and aggregation of red blood cells. J. Biomech. 2016, 49 (11), 2267– 2279, DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.11.027View Google Scholar
48Mainardi, F.; Spada, G. Creep, relaxation and viscosity properties for basic fractional models in rheology. European Physical Journal Special Topics 2011, 193 (1), 133– 160, DOI: 10.1140/epjst/e2011-01387-1View Google Scholar
49Gracka, M.; Lima, R.; Miranda, J. M.; Student, S.; Melka, B.; Ostrowski, Z. Red blood cells tracking and cell-free layer formation in a microchannel with hyperbolic contraction: A CFD model validation. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine 2022, 226, 107117, DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2022.107117View Google Scholar
50Aryan, H.; Beigzadeh, B.; Siavashi, M. Euler-Lagrange numerical simulation of improved magnetic drug delivery in a three-dimensional CT-based carotid artery bifurcation. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine 2022, 219, 106778, DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2022.106778View Google Scholar
51Czaja, B.; Závodszky, G.; Azizi Tarksalooyeh, V.; Hoekstra, A. G. Cell-resolved blood flow simulations of saccular aneurysms: effects of pulsatility and aspect ratio. J. R Soc. Interface 2018, 15 (146), 20180485, DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2018.0485View Google Scholar
52Rydquist, G.; Esmaily, M. A cell-resolved, Lagrangian solver for modeling red blood cell dynamics in macroscale flows. J. Comput. Phys. 2022, 461, 111204, DOI: 10.1016/j.jcp.2022.111204View Google Scholar
53Dadvand, A.; Baghalnezhad, M.; Mirzaee, I.; Khoo, B. C.; Ghoreishi, S. An immersed boundary-lattice Boltzmann approach to study the dynamics of elastic membranes in viscous shear flows. Journal of Computational Science 2014, 5 (5), 709– 718, DOI: 10.1016/j.jocs.2014.06.006View Google Scholar
54Krüger, T.; Holmes, D.; Coveney, P. V. Deformability-based red blood cell separation in deterministic lateral displacement devices─A simulation study. Biomicrofluidics 2014, 8 (5), 054114, DOI: 10.1063/1.4897913View Google Scholar
55Takeishi, N.; Ito, H.; Kaneko, M.; Wada, S. Deformation of a Red Blood Cell in a Narrow Rectangular Microchannel. Micromachines 2019, 10 (3), 199, DOI: 10.3390/mi10030199View Google Scholar
56Krüger, T.; Varnik, F.; Raabe, D. Efficient and accurate simulations of deformable particles immersed in a fluid using a combined immersed boundary lattice Boltzmann finite element method. Computers & Mathematics with Applications 2011, 61 (12), 3485– 3505, DOI: 10.1016/j.camwa.2010.03.057View Google Scholar
57Balachandran Nair, A. N.; Pirker, S.; Umundum, T.; Saeedipour, M. A reduced-order model for deformable particles with application in bio-microfluidics. Computational Particle Mechanics 2020, 7 (3), 593– 601, DOI: 10.1007/s40571-019-00283-8View Google Scholar
58Balachandran Nair, A. N.; Pirker, S.; Saeedipour, M. Resolved CFD-DEM simulation of blood flow with a reduced-order RBC model. Computational Particle Mechanics 2022, 9 (4), 759– 774, DOI: 10.1007/s40571-021-00441-xView Google Scholar
59Mittal, R.; Iaccarino, G. IMMERSED BOUNDARY METHODS. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2005, 37 (1), 239– 261, DOI: 10.1146/annurev.fluid.37.061903.175743View Google Scholar
60Piquet, A.; Roussel, O.; Hadjadj, A. A comparative study of Brinkman penalization and direct-forcing immersed boundary methods for compressible viscous flows. Computers & Fluids 2016, 136, 272– 284, DOI: 10.1016/j.compfluid.2016.06.001View Google Scholar
61Akerkouch, L.; Le, T. B. A Hybrid Continuum-Particle Approach for Fluid-Structure Interaction Simulation of Red Blood Cells in Fluid Flows. Fluids 2021, 6 (4), 139, DOI: 10.3390/fluids6040139View Google Scholar
62Barker, A. T.; Cai, X.-C. Scalable parallel methods for monolithic coupling in fluid-structure interaction with application to blood flow modeling. J. Comput. Phys. 2010, 229 (3), 642– 659, DOI: 10.1016/j.jcp.2009.10.001View Google Scholar
63Cetin, A.; Sahin, M. A monolithic fluid-structure interaction framework applied to red blood cells. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Biomedical Engineering 2019, 35 (2), e3171 DOI: 10.1002/cnm.3171View Google Scholar
64Freund, J. B. Numerical Simulation of Flowing Blood Cells. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2014, 46 (1), 67– 95, DOI: 10.1146/annurev-fluid-010313-141349View Google Scholar
65Ye, T.; Phan-Thien, N.; Lim, C. T. Particle-based simulations of red blood cells─A review. J. Biomech. 2016, 49 (11), 2255– 2266, DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.11.050View Google Scholar
66Arabghahestani, M.; Poozesh, S.; Akafuah, N. K. Advances in Computational Fluid Mechanics in Cellular Flow Manipulation: A Review. Applied Sciences 2019, 9 (19), 4041, DOI: 10.3390/app9194041View Google Scholar
67Rathnayaka, C. M.; From, C. S.; Geekiyanage, N. M.; Gu, Y. T.; Nguyen, N. T.; Sauret, E. Particle-Based Numerical Modelling of Liquid Marbles: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering 2022, 29 (5), 3021– 3039, DOI: 10.1007/s11831-021-09683-7View Google Scholar
68Li, X.; Vlahovska, P. M.; Karniadakis, G. E. Continuum- and particle-based modeling of shapes and dynamics of red blood cells in health and disease. Soft Matter 2013, 9 (1), 28– 37, DOI: 10.1039/C2SM26891DView Google Scholar
69Beris, A. N.; Horner, J. S.; Jariwala, S.; Armstrong, M. J.; Wagner, N. J. Recent advances in blood rheology: a review. Soft Matter 2021, 17 (47), 10591– 10613, DOI: 10.1039/D1SM01212FView Google Scholar
70Arciero, J.; Causin, P.; Malgaroli, F. Mathematical methods for modeling the microcirculation. AIMS Biophysics 2017, 4 (3), 362– 399, DOI: 10.3934/biophy.2017.3.362View Google Scholar
71Maria, M. S.; Chandra, T. S.; Sen, A. K. Capillary flow-driven blood plasma separation and on-chip analyte detection in microfluidic devices. Microfluid. Nanofluid. 2017, 21 (4), 72, DOI: 10.1007/s10404-017-1907-6View Google Scholar
72Huhtamäki, T.; Tian, X.; Korhonen, J. T.; Ras, R. H. A. Surface-wetting characterization using contact-angle measurements. Nat. Protoc. 2018, 13 (7), 1521– 1538, DOI: 10.1038/s41596-018-0003-zView Google Scholar
73Young, T., III. An essay on the cohesion of fluids. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1805, 95, 65– 87, DOI: 10.1098/rstl.1805.0005View Google Scholar
74Kim, Y. C.; Kim, S.-H.; Kim, D.; Park, S.-J.; Park, J.-K. Plasma extraction in a capillary-driven microfluidic device using surfactant-added poly(dimethylsiloxane). Sens. Actuators, B 2010, 145 (2), 861– 868, DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.01.017View Google Scholar
75Washburn, E. W. The Dynamics of Capillary Flow. Physical Review 1921, 17 (3), 273– 283, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.17.273View Google Scholar
76Cito, S.; Ahn, Y. C.; Pallares, J.; Duarte, R. M.; Chen, Z.; Madou, M.; Katakis, I. Visualization and measurement of capillary-driven blood flow using spectral domain optical coherence tomography. Microfluid Nanofluidics 2012, 13 (2), 227– 237, DOI: 10.1007/s10404-012-0950-6View Google Scholar
77Berthier, E.; Dostie, A. M.; Lee, U. N.; Berthier, J.; Theberge, A. B. Open Microfluidic Capillary Systems. Anal Chem. 2019, 91 (14), 8739– 8750, DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b01429View Google Scholar
78Berthier, J.; Brakke, K. A.; Furlani, E. P.; Karampelas, I. H.; Poher, V.; Gosselin, D.; Cubizolles, M.; Pouteau, P. Whole blood spontaneous capillary flow in narrow V-groove microchannels. Sens. Actuators, B 2015, 206, 258– 267, DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2014.09.040View Google Scholar
79Hirt, C. W.; Nichols, B. D. Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries. J. Comput. Phys. 1981, 39 (1), 201– 225, DOI: 10.1016/0021-9991(81)90145-5View Google Scholar
80Chen, J.-L.; Shih, W.-H.; Hsieh, W.-H. AC electro-osmotic micromixer using a face-to-face, asymmetric pair of planar electrodes. Sens. Actuators, B 2013, 188, 11– 21, DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2013.07.012View Google Scholar
81Zhao, C.; Yang, C. Electrokinetics of non-Newtonian fluids: A review. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 2013, 201-202, 94– 108, DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2013.09.001View Google Scholar
82Oh, K. W. 6 – Lab-on-chip (LOC) devices and microfluidics for biomedical applications. In MEMS for Biomedical Applications; Bhansali, S., Vasudev, A., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing, 2012; pp 150– 171.View Google Scholar
83Bello, M. S.; De Besi, P.; Rezzonico, R.; Righetti, P. G.; Casiraghi, E. Electroosmosis of polymer solutions in fused silica capillaries. ELECTROPHORESIS 1994, 15 (1), 623– 626, DOI: 10.1002/elps.1150150186View Google Scholar
84Park, H. M.; Lee, W. M. Effect of viscoelasticity on the flow pattern and the volumetric flow rate in electroosmotic flows through a microchannel. Lab Chip 2008, 8 (7), 1163– 1170, DOI: 10.1039/b800185eView Google Scholar
85Afonso, A. M.; Alves, M. A.; Pinho, F. T. Analytical solution of mixed electro-osmotic/pressure driven flows of viscoelastic fluids in microchannels. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 2009, 159 (1), 50– 63, DOI: 10.1016/j.jnnfm.2009.01.006View Google Scholar
86Sousa, J. J.; Afonso, A. M.; Pinho, F. T.; Alves, M. A. Effect of the skimming layer on electro-osmotic─Poiseuille flows of viscoelastic fluids. Microfluid. Nanofluid. 2011, 10 (1), 107– 122, DOI: 10.1007/s10404-010-0651-yView Google Scholar
87Zhao, C.; Yang, C. Electro-osmotic mobility of non-Newtonian fluids. Biomicrofluidics 2011, 5 (1), 014110, DOI: 10.1063/1.3571278View Google Scholar
88Pimenta, F.; Alves, M. A. Electro-elastic instabilities in cross-shaped microchannels. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 2018, 259, 61– 77, DOI: 10.1016/j.jnnfm.2018.04.004View Google Scholar
89Bezerra, W. S.; Castelo, A.; Afonso, A. M. Numerical Study of Electro-Osmotic Fluid Flow and Vortex Formation. Micromachines (Basel) 2019, 10 (12), 796, DOI: 10.3390/mi10120796View Google Scholar
90Ji, J.; Qian, S.; Liu, Z. Electroosmotic Flow of Viscoelastic Fluid through a Constriction Microchannel. Micromachines (Basel) 2021, 12 (4), 417, DOI: 10.3390/mi12040417View Google Scholar
91Zhao, C.; Yang, C. Exact solutions for electro-osmotic flow of viscoelastic fluids in rectangular micro-channels. Applied Mathematics and Computation 2009, 211 (2), 502– 509, DOI: 10.1016/j.amc.2009.01.068View Google Scholar
92Gerum, R.; Mirzahossein, E.; Eroles, M.; Elsterer, J.; Mainka, A.; Bauer, A.; Sonntag, S.; Winterl, A.; Bartl, J.; Fischer, L. Viscoelastic properties of suspended cells measured with shear flow deformation cytometry. Elife 2022, 11, e78823, DOI: 10.7554/eLife.78823View Google Scholar
93Sadek, S. H.; Pinho, F. T.; Alves, M. A. Electro-elastic flow instabilities of viscoelastic fluids in contraction/expansion micro-geometries. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 2020, 283, 104293, DOI: 10.1016/j.jnnfm.2020.104293View Google Scholar
94Spanjaards, M.; Peters, G.; Hulsen, M.; Anderson, P. Numerical Study of the Effect of Thixotropy on Extrudate Swell. Polymers 2021, 13 (24), 4383, DOI: 10.3390/polym13244383View Google Scholar
95Rashidi, S.; Bafekr, H.; Valipour, M. S.; Esfahani, J. A. A review on the application, simulation, and experiment of the electrokinetic mixers. Chemical Engineering and Processing – Process Intensification 2018, 126, 108– 122, DOI: 10.1016/j.cep.2018.02.021View Google Scholar
96Matsubara, K.; Narumi, T. Microfluidic mixing using unsteady electroosmotic vortices produced by a staggered array of electrodes. Chemical Engineering Journal 2016, 288, 638– 647, DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2015.12.013View Google Scholar
97Qaderi, A.; Jamaati, J.; Bahiraei, M. CFD simulation of combined electroosmotic-pressure driven micro-mixing in a microchannel equipped with triangular hurdle and zeta-potential heterogeneity. Chemical Engineering Science 2019, 199, 463– 477, DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2019.01.034View Google Scholar
98Cho, C.-C.; Chen, C.-L.; Chen, C. o.-K. Mixing enhancement in crisscross micromixer using aperiodic electrokinetic perturbing flows. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2012, 55 (11), 2926– 2933, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.02.006View Google Scholar
99Zhao, W.; Yang, F.; Wang, K.; Bai, J.; Wang, G. Rapid mixing by turbulent-like electrokinetic microflow. Chemical Engineering Science 2017, 165, 113– 121, DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2017.02.027View Google Scholar
100Tran, T.; Chakraborty, P.; Guttenberg, N.; Prescott, A.; Kellay, H.; Goldburg, W.; Goldenfeld, N.; Gioia, G. Macroscopic effects of the spectral structure in turbulent flows. Nat. Phys. 2010, 6 (6), 438– 441, DOI: 10.1038/nphys1674View Google Scholar
101Toner, M.; Irimia, D. Blood-on-a-chip. Annu. Rev. Biomed Eng. 2005, 7, 77– 103, DOI: 10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.011205.135108View Google Scholar
102Maria, M. S.; Rakesh, P. E.; Chandra, T. S.; Sen, A. K. Capillary flow of blood in a microchannel with differential wetting for blood plasma separation and on-chip glucose detection. Biomicrofluidics 2016, 10 (5), 054108, DOI: 10.1063/1.4962874View Google Scholar
103Tripathi, S.; Varun Kumar, Y. V. B.; Prabhakar, A.; Joshi, S. S.; Agrawal, A. Passive blood plasma separation at the microscale: a review of design principles and microdevices. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 2015, 25 (8), 083001, DOI: 10.1088/0960-1317/25/8/083001View Google Scholar
104Mohammadi, M.; Madadi, H.; Casals-Terré, J. Microfluidic point-of-care blood panel based on a novel technique: Reversible electroosmotic flow. Biomicrofluidics 2015, 9 (5), 054106, DOI: 10.1063/1.4930865View Google Scholar
105Kang, D. H.; Kim, K.; Kim, Y. J. An anti-clogging method for improving the performance and lifespan of blood plasma separation devices in real-time and continuous microfluidic systems. Sci. Rep 2018, 8 (1), 17015, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35235-4View Google Scholar
106Li, Z.; Pollack, G. H. Surface-induced flow: A natural microscopic engine using infrared energy as fuel. Science Advances 2020, 6 (19), eaba0941 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aba0941View Google Scholar
107Mercado-Uribe, H.; Guevara-Pantoja, F. J.; García-Muñoz, W.; García-Maldonado, J. S.; Méndez-Alcaraz, J. M.; Ruiz-Suárez, J. C. On the evolution of the exclusion zone produced by hydrophilic surfaces: A contracted description. J. Chem. Phys. 2021, 154 (19), 194902, DOI: 10.1063/5.0043084View Google Scholar
108Yalcin, O.; Jani, V. P.; Johnson, P. C.; Cabrales, P. Implications Enzymatic Degradation of the Endothelial Glycocalyx on the Microvascular Hemodynamics and the Arteriolar Red Cell Free Layer of the Rat Cremaster Muscle. Front Physiol 2018, 9, 168, DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00168View Google Scholar

An Investigation on Hydraulic Aspects of Rectangular Labyrinth Pool and Weir Fishway Using FLOW-3D

Research Article-Civil Engineering
Open access
Published: 04 January 2024

Abstract

웨어의 두 가지 서로 다른 배열(즉, 직선형 웨어와 직사각형 미로 웨어)을 사용하여 웨어 모양, 웨어 간격, 웨어의 오리피스 존재, 흐름 영역에 대한 바닥 경사와 같은 기하학적 매개변수의 영향을 평가했습니다.

유량과 수심의 관계, 수심 평균 속도의 변화와 분포, 난류 특성, 어도에서의 에너지 소산. 흐름 조건에 미치는 영향을 조사하기 위해 FLOW-3D® 소프트웨어를 사용하여 전산 유체 역학 시뮬레이션을 수행했습니다.

수치 모델은 계산된 표면 프로파일과 속도를 문헌의 실험적으로 측정된 값과 비교하여 검증되었습니다. 수치 모델과 실험 데이터의 결과, 급락유동의 표면 프로파일과 표준화된 속도 프로파일에 대한 평균 제곱근 오차와 평균 절대 백분율 오차가 각각 0.014m와 3.11%로 나타나 수치 모델의 능력을 확인했습니다.

수영장과 둑의 흐름 특성을 예측합니다. 각 모델에 대해 L/B = 1.83(L: 웨어 거리, B: 수로 폭) 값에서 급락 흐름이 발생할 수 있고 L/B = 0.61에서 스트리밍 흐름이 발생할 수 있습니다. 직사각형 미로보 모델은 기존 모델보다 무차원 방류량(Q+)이 더 큽니다.

수중 흐름의 기존 보와 직사각형 미로 보의 경우 Q는 각각 1.56과 1.47h에 비례합니다(h: 보 위 수심). 기존 웨어의 풀 내 평균 깊이 속도는 직사각형 미로 웨어의 평균 깊이 속도보다 높습니다.

그러나 주어진 방류량, 바닥 경사 및 웨어 간격에 대해 난류 운동 에너지(TKE) 및 난류 강도(TI) 값은 기존 웨어에 비해 직사각형 미로 웨어에서 더 높습니다. 기존의 웨어는 직사각형 미로 웨어보다 에너지 소산이 더 낮습니다.

더 낮은 TKE 및 TI 값은 미로 웨어 상단, 웨어 하류 벽 모서리, 웨어 측벽과 채널 벽 사이에서 관찰되었습니다. 보와 바닥 경사면 사이의 거리가 증가함에 따라 평균 깊이 속도, 난류 운동 에너지의 평균값 및 난류 강도가 증가하고 수영장의 체적 에너지 소산이 감소했습니다.

둑에 개구부가 있으면 평균 깊이 속도와 TI 값이 증가하고 풀 내에서 가장 높은 TKE 범위가 감소하여 두 모델 모두에서 물고기를 위한 휴식 공간이 더 넓어지고(TKE가 낮아짐) 에너지 소산율이 감소했습니다.

원문보기

Two different arrangements of the weir (i.e., straight weir and rectangular labyrinth weir) were used to evaluate the effects of geometric parameters such as weir shape, weir spacing, presence of an orifice at the weir, and bed slope on the flow regime and the relationship between discharge and depth, variation and distribution of depth-averaged velocity, turbulence characteristics, and energy dissipation at the fishway. Computational fluid dynamics simulations were performed using FLOW-3D® software to examine the effects on flow conditions. The numerical model was validated by comparing the calculated surface profiles and velocities with experimentally measured values from the literature. The results of the numerical model and experimental data showed that the root-mean-square error and mean absolute percentage error for the surface profiles and normalized velocity profiles of plunging flows were 0.014 m and 3.11%, respectively, confirming the ability of the numerical model to predict the flow characteristics of the pool and weir. A plunging flow can occur at values of L/B = 1.83 (L: distance of the weir, B: width of the channel) and streaming flow at L/B = 0.61 for each model. The rectangular labyrinth weir model has larger dimensionless discharge values (Q+) than the conventional model. For the conventional weir and the rectangular labyrinth weir at submerged flow, Q is proportional to 1.56 and 1.47h, respectively (h: the water depth above the weir). The average depth velocity in the pool of a conventional weir is higher than that of a rectangular labyrinth weir. However, for a given discharge, bed slope, and weir spacing, the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) and turbulence intensity (TI) values are higher for a rectangular labyrinth weir compared to conventional weir. The conventional weir has lower energy dissipation than the rectangular labyrinth weir. Lower TKE and TI values were observed at the top of the labyrinth weir, at the corner of the wall downstream of the weir, and between the side walls of the weir and the channel wall. As the distance between the weirs and the bottom slope increased, the average depth velocity, the average value of turbulent kinetic energy and the turbulence intensity increased, and the volumetric energy dissipation in the pool decreased. The presence of an opening in the weir increased the average depth velocity and TI values and decreased the range of highest TKE within the pool, resulted in larger resting areas for fish (lower TKE), and decreased the energy dissipation rates in both models.

1 Introduction

Artificial barriers such as detour dams, weirs, and culverts in lakes and rivers prevent fish from migrating and completing the upstream and downstream movement cycle. This chain is related to the life stage of the fish, its location, and the type of migration. Several riverine fish species instinctively migrate upstream for spawning and other needs. Conversely, downstream migration is a characteristic of early life stages [1]. A fish ladder is a waterway that allows one or more fish species to cross a specific obstacle. These structures are constructed near detour dams and other transverse structures that have prevented such migration by allowing fish to overcome obstacles [2]. The flow pattern in fish ladders influences safe and comfortable passage for ascending fish. The flow’s strong turbulence can reduce the fish’s speed, injure them, and delay or prevent them from exiting the fish ladder. In adult fish, spawning migrations are usually complex, and delays are critical to reproductive success [3].

Various fish ladders/fishways include vertical slots, denil, rock ramps, and pool weirs [1]. The choice of fish ladder usually depends on many factors, including water elevation, space available for construction, and fish species. Pool and weir structures are among the most important fish ladders that help fish overcome obstacles in streams or rivers and swim upstream [1]. Because they are easy to construct and maintain, this type of fish ladder has received considerable attention from researchers and practitioners. Such a fish ladder consists of a sloping-floor channel with series of pools directly separated by a series of weirs [4]. These fish ladders, with or without underwater openings, are generally well-suited for slopes of 10% or less [1, 2]. Within these pools, flow velocities are low and provide resting areas for fish after they enter the fish ladder. After resting in the pools, fish overcome these weirs by blasting or jumping over them [2]. There may also be an opening in the flooded portion of the weir through which the fish can swim instead of jumping over the weir. Design parameters such as the length of the pool, the height of the weir, the slope of the bottom, and the water discharge are the most important factors in determining the hydraulic structure of this type of fish ladder [3]. The flow over the weir depends on the flow depth at a given slope S0 and the pool length, either “plunging” or “streaming.” In plunging flow, the water column h over each weir creates a water jet that releases energy through turbulent mixing and diffusion mechanisms [5]. The dimensionless discharges for plunging (Q+) and streaming (Q*) flows are shown in Fig. 1, where Q is the total discharge, B is the width of the channel, w is the weir height, S₀ is the slope of the bottom, h is the water depth above the weir, d is the flow depth, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The maximum velocity occurs near the top of the weir for plunging flow. At the water’s surface, it drops to about half [6].

Extensive experimental studies have been conducted to investigate flow patterns for various physical geometries (i.e., bed slope, pool length, and weir height) [2]. Guiny et al. [7] modified the standard design by adding vertical slots, orifices, and weirs in fishways. The efficiency of the orifices and vertical slots was related to the velocities at their entrances. In the laboratory experiments of Yagci [8], the three-dimensional (3D) mean flow and turbulence structure of a pool weir fishway combined with an orifice and a slot is investigated. It is shown that the energy dissipation per unit volume and the discharge have a linear relationship.

Considering the beneficial characteristics reported in the limited studies of researchers on the labyrinth weir in the pool-weir-type fishway, and knowing that the characteristics of flow in pool-weir-type fishways are highly dependent on the geometry of the weir, an alternative design of the rectangular labyrinth weir instead of the straight weirs in the pool-weir-type fishway is investigated in this study [7, 9]. Kim [10] conducted experiments to compare the hydraulic characteristics of three different weir types in a pool-weir-type fishway. The results show that a straight, rectangular weir with a notch is preferable to a zigzag or trapezoidal weir. Studies on natural fish passes show that pass ability can be improved by lengthening the weir’s crest [7]. Zhong et al. [11] investigated the semi-rigid weir’s hydraulic performance in the fishway’s flow field with a pool weir. The results showed that this type of fishway performed better with a lower invert slope and a smaller radius ratio but with a larger pool spacing.

Considering that an alternative method to study the flow characteristics in a fishway with a pool weir is based on numerical methods and modeling from computational fluid dynamics (CFD), which can easily change the geometry of the fishway for different flow fields, this study uses the powerful package CFD and the software FLOW-3D to evaluate the proposed weir design and compare it with the conventional one to extend the application of the fishway. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the hydraulic performance of the rectangular labyrinth pool and the weir with submerged openings in different hydraulic configurations. The primary objective of creating a new weir configuration for suitable flow patterns is evaluated based on the swimming capabilities of different fish species. Specifically, the following questions will be answered: (a) How do the various hydraulic and geometric parameters relate to the effects of water velocity and turbulence, expressed as turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) and turbulence intensity (TI) within the fishway, i.e., are conventional weirs more affected by hydraulics than rectangular labyrinth weirs? (b) Which weir configurations have the greatest effect on fish performance in the fishway? (c) In the presence of an orifice plate, does the performance of each weir configuration differ with different weir spacing, bed gradients, and flow regimes from that without an orifice plate?

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Physical Model Configuration

This paper focuses on Ead et al. [6]’s laboratory experiments as a reference, testing ten pool weirs (Fig. 2). The experimental flume was 6 m long, 0.56 m wide, and 0.6 m high, with a bottom slope of 10%. Field measurements were made at steady flow with a maximum flow rate of 0.165 m³/s. Discharge was measured with magnetic flow meters in the inlets and water level with point meters (see Ead et al. [6]. for more details). Table 1 summarizes the experimental conditions considered for model calibration in this study.

Table 1 Experimental conditions considered for calibration

Full size table

2.2 Numerical Models

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed using FLOW-3D® v11.2 to validate a series of experimental liner pool weirs by Ead et al. [6] and to investigate the effects of the rectangular labyrinth pool weir with an orifice. The dimensions of the channel and data collection areas in the numerical models are the same as those of the laboratory model. Two types of pool weirs were considered: conventional and labyrinth. The proposed rectangular labyrinth pool weirs have a symmetrical cross section and are sized to fit within the experimental channel. The conventional pool weir model had a pool length of l = 0.685 and 0.342 m, a weir height of w = 0.141 m, a weir width of B = 0.56 m, and a channel slope of S₀ = 5 and 10%. The rectangular labyrinth weirs have the same front width as the offset, i.e., a = b = c = 0.186 m. A square underwater opening with a width of 0.05 m and a depth of 0.05 m was created in the middle of the weir. The weir configuration considered in the present study is shown in Fig. 3.

2.3 Governing Equations

FLOW-3D® software solves the Navier–Stokes–Reynolds equations for three-dimensional analysis of incompressible flows using the fluid-volume method on a gridded domain. FLOW -3D® uses an advanced free surface flow tracking algorithm (TruVOF) developed by Hirt and Nichols [12], where fluid configurations are defined in terms of a VOF function F (x, y, z, t). In this case, F (fluid fraction) represents the volume fraction occupied by the fluid: F = 1 in cells filled with fluid and F = 0 in cells without fluid (empty areas) [4, 13]. The free surface area is at an intermediate value of F. (Typically, F = 0.5, but the user can specify a different intermediate value.) The equations in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) applicable to the model are as follows:

�f∂�∂�+∂(��x)∂�+∂(��y)∂�+∂(��z)∂�=�SOR

(1)

∂�∂�+1�f(��x∂�∂�+��y∂�∂�+��z∂�∂�)=−1�∂�∂�+�x+�x

(2)

∂�∂�+1�f(��x∂�∂�+��y∂�∂�+��z∂�∂�)=−1�∂�∂�+�y+�y

(3)

∂�∂�+1�f(��x∂�∂�+��y∂�∂�+��z∂�∂�)=−1�∂�∂�+�z+�z

(4)

where (u, v, w) are the velocity components, (A_x, A_y, A_z) are the flow area components, (G_x, G_y, G_z) are the mass accelerations, and (f_x, f_y, f_z) are the viscous accelerations in the directions (x, y, z), ρ is the fluid density, R_SOR is the spring term, V_f is the volume fraction associated with the flow, and P is the pressure. The k–ε turbulence model (RNG) was used in this study to solve the turbulence of the flow field. This model is a modified version of the standard k–ε model that improves performance. The model is a two-equation model; the first equation (Eq. 5) expresses the turbulence’s energy, called turbulent kinetic energy (k) [14]. The second equation (Eq. 6) is the turbulent dissipation rate (ε), which determines the rate of dissipation of kinetic energy [15]. These equations are expressed as follows Dasineh et al. [4]:

∂(��)∂�+∂(��)∂��=∂∂��[��∂�∂��]+��−�ε

(5)

∂(�ε)∂�+∂(�ε��)∂��=∂∂��[�ε�eff∂ε∂��]+�1εε��k−�2ε�ε2�

(6)

In these equations, k is the turbulent kinetic energy, ε is the turbulent energy consumption rate, G_k is the generation of turbulent kinetic energy by the average velocity gradient, with empirical constants α_ε = α_k = 1.39, C_1ε = 1.42, and C_2ε = 1.68, eff is the effective viscosity, μ_eff = μ + μ_t [15]. Here, μ is the hydrodynamic density coefficient, and μ_t is the turbulent density of the fluid.

2.4 Meshing and the Boundary Conditions in the Model Setup

The numerical area is divided into three mesh blocks in the X-direction. The meshes are divided into different sizes, a containing mesh block for the entire spatial domain and a nested block with refined cells for the domain of interest. Three different sizes were selected for each of the grid blocks. By comparing the accuracy of their results based on the experimental data, the reasonable mesh for the solution domain was finally selected. The convergence index method (GCI) evaluated the mesh sensitivity analysis. Based on this method, many researchers, such as Ahmadi et al. [16] and Ahmadi et al. [15], have studied the independence of numerical results from mesh size. Three different mesh sizes with a refinement ratio (r) of 1.33 were used to perform the convergence index method. The refinement ratio is the ratio between the larger and smaller mesh sizes (r = G_coarse/G_fine). According to the recommendation of Celik et al. [17], the recommended number for the refinement ratio is 1.3, which gives acceptable results. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the three mesh sizes selected for mesh sensitivity analysis.Table 2 Characteristics of the meshes tested in the convergence analysis

Full size table

The results of u₁ = u_max (u₁ = velocity component along the x₁ axis and u_max = maximum velocity of u₁ in a section perpendicular to the invert of the fishway) at Q = 0.035 m³/s, × 1/l = 0.66, and Y₁/b = 0 in the pool of conventional weir No. 4, obtained from the output results of the software, were used to evaluate the accuracy of the calculation range. As shown in Fig. 4, x₁ = the distance from a given weir in the x-direction, Y₁ = the water depth measured in the y-direction, Y₀ = the vertical distance in the Cartesian coordinate system, h = the water column at the crest, b = the distance between the two points of maximum velocity u_max and zero velocity, and l = the pool length.

The apparent index of convergence (p) in the GCI method is calculated as follows:

�=ln⁡(�3−�2)(�2−�1)/ln⁡(�)

(7)

f₁, f₂, and f₃ are the hydraulic parameters obtained from the numerical simulation (f₁ corresponds to the small mesh), and r is the refinement ratio. The following equation defines the convergence index of the fine mesh:

GCIfine=1.25|ε|��−1

(8)

Here, ε = (f₂ − f₁)/f₁ is the relative error, and f₂ and f₃ are the values of hydraulic parameters considered for medium and small grids, respectively. GCI₁₂ and GCI₂₃ dimensionless indices can be calculated as:

GCI12=1.25|�2−�1�1|��−1

(9)

Then, the independence of the network is preserved. The convergence index of the network parameters obtained by Eqs. (7)–(9) for all three network variables is shown in Table 3. Since the GCI values for the smaller grid (GCI₁₂) are lower compared to coarse grid (GCI₂₃), it can be concluded that the independence of the grid is almost achieved. No further change in the grid size of the solution domain is required. The calculated values (GCI₂₃/r^pGCI₁₂) are close to 1, which shows that the numerical results obtained are within the convergence range. As a result, the meshing of the solution domain consisting of a block mesh with a mesh size of 0.012 m and a block mesh within a larger block mesh with a mesh size of 0.009 m was selected as the optimal mesh (Fig. 5).Table 3 GCI calculation

Full size table

The boundary conditions applied to the area are shown in Fig. 6. The boundary condition of specific flow rate (volume flow rate-Q) was used for the inlet of the flow. For the downstream boundary, the flow output (outflow-O) condition did not affect the flow in the solution area. For the Z_max boundary, the specified pressure boundary condition was used along with the fluid fraction = 0 (P). This type of boundary condition considers free surface or atmospheric pressure conditions (Ghaderi et al. [19]). The wall boundary condition is defined for the bottom of the channel, which acts like a virtual wall without friction (W). The boundary between mesh blocks and walls were considered a symmetrical condition (S).

The convergence of the steady-state solutions was controlled during the simulations by monitoring the changes in discharge at the inlet boundary conditions. Figure 7 shows the time series plots of the discharge obtained from the Model A for the three main discharges from the numerical results. The 8 s to reach the flow equilibrium is suitable for the case of the fish ladder with pool and weir. Almost all discharge fluctuations in the models are insignificant in time, and the flow has reached relative stability. The computation time for the simulations was between 6 and 8 h using a personal computer with eight cores of a CPU (Intel Core i7-7700K @ 4.20 GHz and 16 GB RAM).

3 Results

3.1 Verification of Numerical Results

Quantitative outcomes, including free surface and normalized velocity profiles obtained using FLOW-3D software, were reviewed and compared with the results of Ead et al. [6]. The fourth pool was selected to present the results and compare the experiment and simulation. For each quantity, the percentage of mean absolute error (MAPE (%)) and root-mean-square error (RMSE) are calculated. Equations (10) and (11) show the method used to calculate the errors.

MAPE(%)100×1�∑1�|�exp−�num�exp|

(10)

RMSE(−)1�∑1�(�exp−�num)2

(11)

Here, X_exp is the value of the laboratory data, X_num is the numerical data value, and n is the amount of data. As shown in Fig. 8, let x₁ = distance from a given weir in the x-direction and Y₁ = water depth in the y-direction from the bottom. The trend of the surface profiles for each of the numerical results is the same as that of the laboratory results. The surface profiles of the plunging flows drop after the flow enters and then rises to approach the next weir. The RMSE and MAPE error values for Model A are 0.014 m and 3.11%, respectively, indicating acceptable agreement between numerical and laboratory results. Figure 9 shows the velocity vectors and plunging flow from the numerical results, where x and y are horizontal and vertical to the flow direction, respectively. It can be seen that the jet in the fish ladder pool has a relatively high velocity. The two vortices, i.e., the enclosed vortex rotating clockwise behind the weir and the surface vortex rotating counterclockwise above the jet, are observed for the regime of incident flow. The point where the jet meets the fish passage bed is shown in the figure. The normalized velocity profiles upstream and downstream of the impact points are shown in Fig. 10. The figure shows that the numerical results agree well with the experimental data of Ead et al. [6].

3.2 Flow Regime and Discharge-Depth Relationship

Depending on the geometric shape of the fishway, including the distance of the weir, the slope of the bottom, the height of the weir, and the flow conditions, the flow regime in the fishway is divided into three categories: dipping, transitional, and flow regimes [4]. In the plunging flow regime, the flow enters the pool through the weir, impacts the bottom of the fishway, and forms a hydraulic jump causing two eddies [2, 20]. In the streamwise flow regime, the surface of the flow passing over the weir is almost parallel to the bottom of the channel. The transitional regime has intermediate flow characteristics between the submerged and flow regimes. To predict the flow regime created in the fishway, Ead et al. [6] proposed two dimensionless parameters, Q_t* and L/w, where Q_t* is the dimensionless discharge, L is the distance between weirs, and w is the height of the weir:

��∗=��0��

(12)

Q is the total discharge, B is the width of the channel, S₀ is the slope of the bed, and g is the gravity acceleration. Figure 11 shows different ranges for each flow regime based on the slope of the bed and the distance between the pools in this study. The results of Baki et al. [21], Ead et al. [6] and Dizabadi et al. [22] were used for this comparison. The distance between the pools affects the changes in the regime of the fish ladder. So, if you decrease the distance between weirs, the flow regime more likely becomes. This study determined all three flow regimes in a fish ladder. When the corresponding range of Q_t* is less than 0.6, the flow regime can dip at values of L/B = 1.83. If the corresponding range of Q_t* is greater than 0.5, transitional flow may occur at L/B = 1.22. On the other hand, when Q_t* is greater than 1, streamwise flow can occur at values of L/B = 0.61. These observations agree well with the results of Baki et al. [21], Ead et al. [6] and Dizabadi et al. [22].

For plunging flows, another dimensionless discharge (Q+) versus h/w given by Ead et al. [6] was used for further evaluation:

�+=��ℎ�ℎ=23�d�

(13)

where h is the water depth above the weir, and C_d is the discharge coefficient. Figure 12a compares the numerical and experimental results of Ead et al. [6]. In this figure, Rehbock’s empirical equation is used to estimate the discharge coefficient of Ead et al. [6].

�d=0.57+0.075ℎ�

(14)

The numerical results for the conventional weir (Model A) and the rectangular labyrinth weir (Model B) of this study agree well with the laboratory results of Ead et al. [6]. When comparing models A and B, it is also found that a rectangular labyrinth weir has larger Q + values than the conventional weir as the length of the weir crest increases for a given channel width and fixed headwater elevation. In Fig. 12b, Models A and B’s flow depth plot shows the plunging flow regime. The power trend lines drawn through the data are the best-fit lines. The data shown in Fig. 12b are for different bed slopes and weir geometries. For the conventional weir and the rectangular labyrinth weir at submerged flow, Q can be assumed to be proportional to 1.56 and 1.47h, respectively. In the results of Ead et al. [6], Q is proportional to 1.5h. If we assume that the flow through the orifice is Q_o and the total outflow is Q, the change in the ratio of Q_o/Q to total outflow for models A and B can be shown in Fig. 13. For both models, the flow through the orifice decreases as the total flow increases. A logarithmic trend line was also found between the total outflow and the dimensionless ratio Q_o/Q.

3.3 Depth-Averaged Velocity Distributions

To ensure that the target fish species can pass the fish ladder with maximum efficiency, the average velocity in the fish ladder should be low enough [4]. Therefore, the average velocity in depth should be as much as possible below the critical swimming velocities of the target fishes at a constant flow depth in the pool [20]. The contour plot of depth-averaged velocity was used instead of another direction, such as longitudinal velocity because fish are more sensitive to depth-averaged flow velocity than to its direction under different hydraulic conditions. Figure 14 shows the distribution of depth-averaged velocity in the pool for Models A and B in two cases with and without orifice plates. Model A’s velocity within the pool differs slightly in the spanwise direction. However, no significant variation in velocity was observed. The flow is gradually directed to the sides as it passes through the rectangular labyrinth weir. This increases the velocity at the sides of the channel. Therefore, the high-velocity zone is located at the sides. The low velocity is in the downstream apex of the weir. This area may be suitable for swimming target fish. The presence of an opening in the weir increases the flow velocity at the opening and in the pool’s center, especially in Model A. The flow velocity increase caused by the models’ opening varied from 7.7 to 12.48%. Figure 15 illustrates the effect of the inverted slope on the averaged depth velocity distribution in the pool at low and high discharge. At constant discharge, flow velocity increases with increasing bed slope. In general, high flow velocity was found in the weir toe sidewall and the weir and channel sidewalls.

On the other hand, for a constant bed slope, the high-velocity area of the pool increases due to the increase in runoff. For both bed slopes and different discharges, the most appropriate path for fish to travel from upstream to downstream is through the middle of the cross section and along the top of the rectangular labyrinth weirs. The maximum dominant velocities for Model B at S₀ = 5% were 0.83 and 1.01 m/s; at S₀ = 10%, they were 1.12 and 1.61 m/s at low and high flows, respectively. The low mean velocities for the same distance and S₀ = 5 and 10% were 0.17 and 0.26 m/s, respectively.

Figure 16 shows the contour of the averaged depth velocity for various distances from the weir at low and high discharge. The contour plot shows a large variation in velocity within short distances from the weir. At L/B = 0.61, velocities are low upstream and downstream of the top of the weir. The high velocities occur in the side walls of the weir and the channel. At L/B = 1.22, the low-velocity zone displaces the higher velocity in most of the pool. Higher velocities were found only on the sides of the channel. As the discharge increases, the velocity zone in the pool becomes wider. At L/B = 1.83, there is an area of higher velocities only upstream of the crest and on the sides of the weir. At high discharge, the prevailing maximum velocities for L/B = 0.61, 1.22, and 1.83 were 1.46, 1.65, and 1.84 m/s, respectively. As the distance between weirs increases, the range of maximum velocity increases.

On the other hand, the low mean velocity for these distances was 0.27, 0.44, and 0.72 m/s, respectively. Thus, the low-velocity zone decreases with increasing distance between weirs. Figure 17 shows the pattern distribution of streamlines along with the velocity contour at various distances from the weir for Q = 0.05 m³/s. A stream-like flow is generally formed in the pool at a small distance between weirs (L/B = 0.61). The rotation cell under the jet forms clockwise between the two weirs. At the distances between the spillways (L/B = 1.22), the transition regime of the flow is formed. The transition regime occurs when or shortly after the weir is flooded. The rotation cell under the jet is clockwise smaller than the flow regime and larger than the submergence regime. At a distance L/B = 1.83, a plunging flow is formed so that the plunging jet dips into the pool and extends downstream to the center of the pool. The clockwise rotation of the cell is bounded by the dipping jet of the weir and is located between the bottom and the side walls of the weir and the channel.

Figure 18 shows the average depth velocity bar graph for each weir at different bed slopes and with and without orifice plates. As the distance between weirs increases, all models’ average depth velocity increases. As the slope of the bottom increases and an orifice plate is present, the average depth velocity in the pool increases. In addition, the average pool depth velocity increases as the discharge increases. Among the models, Model A’s average depth velocity is higher than Model B’s. The variation in velocity ranged from 8.11 to 12.24% for the models without an orifice plate and from 10.26 to 16.87% for the models with an orifice plate.

3.4 Turbulence Characteristics

The turbulent kinetic energy is one of the important parameters reflecting the turbulent properties of the flow field [23]. When the k value is high, more energy and a longer transit time are required to migrate the target species. The turbulent kinetic energy is defined as follows:

�=12(�x′2+�y′2+�z′2)

(15)

where u_x, u_y, and u_z are fluctuating velocities in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. An illustration of the TKE and the effects of the geometric arrangement of the weir and the presence of an opening in the weir is shown in Fig. 19. For a given bed slope, in Model A, the highest TKE values are uniformly distributed in the weir’s upstream portion in the channel’s cross section. In contrast, for the rectangular labyrinth weir (Model B), the highest TKE values are concentrated on the sides of the pool between the crest of the weir and the channel wall. The highest TKE value in Models A and B is 0.224 and 0.278 J/kg, respectively, at the highest bottom slope (S₀ = 10%). In the downstream portion of the conventional weir and within the crest of the weir and the walls of the rectangular labyrinth, there was a much lower TKE value that provided the best conditions for fish to recover in the pool between the weirs. The average of the lowest TKE for bottom slopes of 5 and 10% in Model A is 0.041 and 0.056 J/kg, and for Model B, is 0.047 and 0.064 J/kg. The presence of an opening in the weirs reduces the area of the highest TKE within the pool. It also increases the resting areas for fish (lower TKE). The highest TKE at the highest bottom slope in Models A and B with an orifice is 0.208 and 0.191 J/kg, respectively.

Figure 20 shows the effect of slope on the longitudinal distribution of TKE in the pools. TKE values significantly increase for a given discharge with an increasing bottom slope. Thus, for a low bed slope (S₀ = 5%), a large pool area has expanded with average values of 0.131 and 0.168 J/kg for low and high discharge, respectively. For a bed slope of S₀ = 10%, the average TKE values are 0.176 and 0.234 J/kg. Furthermore, as the discharge increases, the area with high TKE values within the pool increases. Lower TKE values are observed at the apex of the labyrinth weir, at the corner of the wall downstream of the weir, and between the side walls of the weir and the channel wall for both bottom slopes. The effect of distance between weirs on TKE is shown in Fig. 21. Low TKE values were observed at low discharge and short distances between weirs. Low TKE values are located at the top of the rectangular labyrinth weir and the downstream corner of the weir wall. There is a maximum value of TKE at the large distances between weirs, L/B = 1.83, along the center line of the pool, where the dip jet meets the bottom of the bed. At high discharge, the maximum TKE value for the distance L/B = 0.61, 1.22, and 1.83 was 0.246, 0.322, and 0.417 J/kg, respectively. In addition, the maximum TKE range increases with the distance between weirs.

For TKE size, the average value (TKE_ave) is plotted against q in Fig. 22. For all models, the TKE values increase with increasing q. For example, in models A and B with L/B = 0.61 and a slope of 10%, the TKE value increases by 41.66 and 86.95%, respectively, as q increases from 0.1 to 0.27 m²/s. The TKE values in Model B are higher than Model A for a given discharge, bed slope, and weir distance. The TKE_ave in Model B is higher compared to Model A, ranging from 31.46 to 57.94%. The presence of an orifice in the weir reduces the TKE values in both weirs. The intensity of the reduction is greater in Model B. For example, in Models A and B with L/B = 0.61 and q = 0.1 m²/s, an orifice reduces TKE_ave values by 60.35 and 19.04%, respectively. For each model, increasing the bed slope increases the TKE_ave values in the pool. For example, for Model B with q = 0.18 m²/s, increasing the bed slope from 5 to 10% increases the TKE_ave value by 14.34%. Increasing the distance between weirs increases the TKE_ave values in the pool. For example, in Model B with S₀ = 10% and q = 0.3 m²/s, the TKE_ave in the pool increases by 34.22% if you increase the distance between weirs from L/B = 0.61 to L/B = 0.183.

Cotel et al. [24] suggested that turbulence intensity (TI) is a suitable parameter for studying fish swimming performance. Figure 23 shows the plot of TI and the effects of the geometric arrangement of the weir and the presence of an orifice. In Model A, the highest TI values are found upstream of the weirs and are evenly distributed across the cross section of the channel. The TI values increase as you move upstream to downstream in the pool. For the rectangular labyrinth weir, the highest TI values were concentrated on the sides of the pool, between the top of the weir and the side wall of the channel, and along the top of the weir. Downstream of the conventional weir, within the apex of the weir, and at the corners of the walls of the rectangular labyrinth weir, the percentage of TI was low. At the highest discharge, the average range of TI in Models A and B was 24–45% and 15–62%, respectively. The diversity of TI is greater in the rectangular labyrinth weir than the conventional weir. Fish swimming performance is reduced due to higher turbulence intensity. However, fish species may prefer different disturbance intensities depending on their swimming abilities; for example, Salmo trutta prefers a disturbance intensity of 18–53% [25]. Kupferschmidt and Zhu [26] found a higher range of TI for fishways, such as natural rock weirs, of 40–60%. The presence of an orifice in the weir increases TI values within the pool, especially along the middle portion of the cross section of the fishway. With an orifice in the weir, the average range of TI in Models A and B was 28–59% and 22–73%, respectively.

The effect of bed slope on TI variation is shown in Fig. 24. TI increases in different pool areas as the bed slope increases for a given discharge. For a low bed slope (S₀ = 5%), a large pool area has increased from 38 to 63% and from 56 to 71% for low and high discharge, respectively. For a bed slope of S₀ = 10%, the average values of TI are 45–67% and 61–73% for low and high discharge, respectively. Therefore, as runoff increases, the area with high TI values within the pool increases. A lower TI is observed for both bottom slopes in the corner of the wall, downstream of the crest walls, and between the side walls in the weir and channel. Figure 25 compares weir spacing with the distribution of TI values within the pool. The TI values are low at low flows and short distances between weirs. A maximum value of TI occurs at long spacing and where the plunging stream impinges on the bed and the area around the bed. TI ranges from 36 to 57%, 58–72%, and 47–76% for the highest flow in a wide pool area for L/B = 0.61, 1.22, and 1.83, respectively.

The average value of turbulence intensity (TI_ave) is plotted against q in Fig. 26. The increase in TI values with the increase in q values is seen in all models. For example, the average values of TI for Models A and B at L/B = 0.61 and slope of 10% increased from 23.9 to 33.5% and from 42 to 51.8%, respectively, with the increase in q from 0.1 to 0.27 m²/s. For a given discharge, a given gradient, and a given spacing of weirs, the TI_ave is higher in Model B than Model A. The presence of an orifice in the weirs increases the TI values in both types. For example, in Models A and B with L/B = 0.61 and q = 0.1 m²/s, the presence of an orifice increases TI_ave from 23.9 to 37.1% and from 42 to 48.8%, respectively. For each model, TI_ave in the pool increases with increasing bed slope. For Model B with q = 0.18 m²/s, TI_ave increases from 37.5 to 45.8% when you increase the invert slope from 5 to 10%. Increasing the distance between weirs increases the TI_ave in the pool. In Model B with S₀ = 10% and q = 0.3 m²/s, the TI_ave in the pool increases from 51.8 to 63.7% as the distance between weirs increases from L/B = 0.61 to L/B = 0.183.

3.5 Energy Dissipation

To facilitate the passage of various target species through the pool of fishways, it is necessary to pay attention to the energy dissipation of the flow and to keep the flow velocity in the pool slow. The average volumetric energy dissipation (k) in the pool is calculated using the following basic formula:

�=��0��

(16)

where ρ is the water density, and H is the average water depth of the pool. The change in k versus Q for all models at two bottom slopes, S₀ = 5%, and S₀ = 10%, is shown in Fig. 27. Like the results of Yagci [8] and Kupferschmidt and Zhu [26], at a constant bottom slope, the energy dissipation in the pool increases with increasing discharge. The trend of change in k as a function of Q from the present study at a bottom gradient of S₀ = 5% is also consistent with the results of Kupferschmidt and Zhu [26] for the fishway with rock weir. The only difference between the results is the geometry of the fishway and the combination of boulders instead of a solid wall. Comparison of the models shows that the conventional model has lower energy dissipation than the rectangular labyrinth for a given discharge. Also, increasing the distance between weirs decreases the volumetric energy dissipation for each model with the same bed slope. Increasing the slope of the bottom leads to an increase in volumetric energy dissipation, and an opening in the weir leads to a decrease in volumetric energy dissipation for both models. Therefore, as a guideline for volumetric energy dissipation, if the value within the pool is too high, the increased distance of the weir, the decreased slope of the bed, or the creation of an opening in the weir would decrease the volumetric dissipation rate.

To evaluate the energy dissipation inside the pool, the general method of energy difference in two sections can use:

ε=�1−�2�1

(17)

where ε is the energy dissipation rate, and E₁ and E₂ are the specific energies in Sects. 1 and 2, respectively. The distance between Sects. 1 and 2 is the same. (L is the distance between two upstream and downstream weirs.) Figure 28 shows the changes in ε relative to q (flow per unit width). The rectangular labyrinth weir (Model B) has a higher energy dissipation rate than the conventional weir (Model A) at a constant bottom gradient. For example, at S₀ = 5%, L/B = 0.61, and q = 0.08 m³/s.m, the energy dissipation rate in Model A (conventional weir) was 0.261. In Model B (rectangular labyrinth weir), however, it was 0.338 (22.75% increase). For each model, the energy dissipation rate within the pool increases as the slope of the bottom increases. For Model B with L/B = 1.83 and q = 0.178 m³/s.m, the energy dissipation rate at S₀ = 5% and 10% is 0.305 and 0.358, respectively (14.8% increase). Figure 29 shows an orifice’s effect on the pools’ energy dissipation rate. With an orifice in the weir, both models’ energy dissipation rates decreased. Thus, the reduction in energy dissipation rate varied from 7.32 to 9.48% for Model A and from 8.46 to 10.57 for Model B.

4 Discussion

This study consisted of entirely of numerical analysis. Although this study was limited to two weirs, the hydraulic performance and flow characteristics in a pooled fishway are highlighted by the rectangular labyrinth weir and its comparison with the conventional straight weir. The study compared the numerical simulations with laboratory experiments in terms of surface profiles, velocity vectors, and flow characteristics in a fish ladder pool. The results indicate agreement between the numerical and laboratory data, supporting the reliability of the numerical model in capturing the observed phenomena.

When the configuration of the weir changes to a rectangular labyrinth weir, the flow characteristics, the maximum and minimum area, and even the location of each hydraulic parameter change compared to a conventional weir. In the rectangular labyrinth weir, the flow is gradually directed to the sides as it passes the weir. This increases the velocity at the sides of the channel [21]. Therefore, the high-velocity area is located on the sides. In the downstream apex of the weir, the flow velocity is low, and this area may be suitable for swimming target fish. However, no significant change in velocity was observed at the conventional weir within the fish ladder. This resulted in an average increase in TKE of 32% and an average increase in TI of about 17% compared to conventional weirs.

In addition, there is a slight difference in the flow regime for both weir configurations. In addition, the rectangular labyrinth weir has a higher energy dissipation rate for a given discharge and constant bottom slope than the conventional weir. By reducing the distance between the weirs, this becomes even more intense. Finally, the presence of an orifice in both configurations of the weir increased the flow velocity at the orifice and in the middle of the pool, reducing the highest TKE value and increasing the values of TI within the pool of the fish ladder. This resulted in a reduction in volumetric energy dissipation for both weir configurations.

The results of this study will help the reader understand the direct effects of the governing geometric parameters on the hydraulic characteristics of a fishway with a pool and weir. However, due to the limited configurations of the study, further investigation is needed to evaluate the position of the weir’s crest on the flow direction and the difference in flow characteristics when combining boulders instead of a solid wall for this type of labyrinth weir [26]. In addition, hydraulic engineers and biologists must work together to design an effective fishway with rectangular labyrinth configurations. The migration habits of the target species should be considered when designing the most appropriate design [27]. Parametric studies and field observations are recommended to determine the perfect design criteria.

The current study focused on comparing a rectangular labyrinth weir with a conventional straight weir. Further research can explore other weir configurations, such as variations in crest position, different shapes of labyrinth weirs, or the use of boulders instead of solid walls. This would help understand the influence of different geometric parameters on hydraulic characteristics.

5 Conclusions

A new layout of the weir was evaluated, namely a rectangular labyrinth weir compared to a straight weir in a pool and weir system. The differences between the weirs were highlighted, particularly how variations in the geometry of the structures, such as the shape of the weir, the spacing of the weir, the presence of an opening at the weir, and the slope of the bottom, affect the hydraulics within the structures. The main findings of this study are as follows:

The calculated dimensionless discharge (Q_t*) confirmed three different flow regimes: when the corresponding range of Q_t* is smaller than 0.6, the regime of plunging flow occurs for values of L/B = 1.83. (L: distance of the weir; B: channel width). When the corresponding range of Q_t* is greater than 0.5, transitional flow occurs at L/B = 1.22. On the other hand, if Q_t* is greater than 1, the streaming flow is at values of L/B = 0.61.
For the conventional weir and the rectangular labyrinth weir with the plunging flow, it can be assumed that the discharge (Q) is proportional to 1.56 and 1.47h, respectively (h: water depth above the weir). This information is useful for estimating the discharge based on water depth in practical applications.
In the rectangular labyrinth weir, the high-velocity zone is located on the side walls between the top of the weir and the channel wall. A high-velocity variation within short distances of the weir. Low velocity occurs within the downstream apex of the weir. This area may be suitable for swimming target fish.
As the distance between weirs increased, the zone of maximum velocity increased. However, the zone of low speed decreased. The prevailing maximum velocity for a rectangular labyrinth weir at L/B = 0.61, 1.22, and 1.83 was 1.46, 1.65, and 1.84 m/s, respectively. The low mean velocities for these distances were 0.27, 0.44, and 0.72 m/s, respectively. This finding highlights the importance of weir spacing in determining the flow characteristics within the fishway.
The presence of an orifice in the weir increased the flow velocity at the orifice and in the middle of the pool, especially in a conventional weir. The increase ranged from 7.7 to 12.48%.
For a given bottom slope, in a conventional weir, the highest values of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) are uniformly distributed in the upstream part of the weir in the cross section of the channel. In contrast, for the rectangular labyrinth weir, the highest TKE values were concentrated on the sides of the pool between the crest of the weir and the channel wall. The highest TKE value for the conventional and the rectangular labyrinth weir was 0.224 and 0.278 J/kg, respectively, at the highest bottom slope (S₀ = 10%).
For a given discharge, bottom slope, and weir spacing, the average values of TI are higher for the rectangular labyrinth weir than for the conventional weir. At the highest discharge, the average range of turbulence intensity (TI) for the conventional and rectangular labyrinth weirs was between 24 and 45% and 15% and 62%, respectively. This reveals that the rectangular labyrinth weir may generate more turbulent flow conditions within the fishway.
For a given discharge and constant bottom slope, the rectangular labyrinth weir has a higher energy dissipation rate than the conventional weir (22.75 and 34.86%).
Increasing the distance between weirs decreased volumetric energy dissipation. However, increasing the gradient increased volumetric energy dissipation. The presence of an opening in the weir resulted in a decrease in volumetric energy dissipation for both model types.

Availability of data and materials

Data is contained within the article.

References

Katopodis C (1992) Introduction to fishway design, working document. Freshwater Institute, Central Arctic Region
Marriner, B.A.; Baki, A.B.M.; Zhu, D.Z.; Thiem, J.D.; Cooke, S.J.; Katopodis, C.: Field and numerical assessment of turning pool hydraulics in a vertical slot fishway. Ecol. Eng. 63, 88–101 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.12.010 Article Google Scholar
Dasineh, M.; Ghaderi, A.; Bagherzadeh, M.; Ahmadi, M.; Kuriqi, A.: Prediction of hydraulic jumps on a triangular bed roughness using numerical modeling and soft computing methods. Mathematics 9, 3135 (2021)Article Google Scholar
Silva, A.T.; Bermúdez, M.; Santos, J.M.; Rabuñal, J.R.; Puertas, J.: Pool-type fishway design for a potamodromous cyprinid in the Iberian Peninsula: the Iberian barbel—synthesis and future directions. Sustainability 12, 3387 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083387 Article Google Scholar
Santos, J.M.; Branco, P.; Katopodis, C.; Ferreira, T.; Pinheiro, A.: Retrofitting pool-and-weir fishways to improve passage performance of benthic fishes: effect of boulder density and fishway discharge. Ecol. Eng. 73, 335–344 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.065 Article Google Scholar
Ead, S.; Katopodis, C.; Sikora, G.; Rajaratnam, N.J.J.: Flow regimes and structure in pool and weir fishways. J. Environ. Eng. Sci. 3, 379–390 (2004)Article Google Scholar
Guiny, E.; Ervine, D.A.; Armstrong, J.D.: Hydraulic and biological aspects of fish passes for Atlantic salmon. J. Hydraul. Eng. 131, 542–553 (2005)Article Google Scholar
Yagci, O.: Hydraulic aspects of pool-weir fishways as ecologically friendly water structure. Ecol. Eng. 36, 36–46 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.09.007 Article Google Scholar
Dizabadi, S.; Hakim, S.S.; Azimi, A.H.: Discharge characteristics and structure of flow in labyrinth weirs with a downstream pool. Flow Meas. Instrum. 71, 101683 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2019.101683 Article Google Scholar
Kim, J.H.: Hydraulic characteristics by weir type in a pool-weir fishway. Ecol. Eng. 16, 425–433 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(00)00125-7 Article Google Scholar
Zhong, Z.; Ruan, T.; Hu, Y.; Liu, J.; Liu, B.; Xu, W.: Experimental and numerical assessment of hydraulic characteristic of a new semi-frustum weir in the pool-weir fishway. Ecol. Eng. 170, 106362 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106362 Article Google Scholar
Hirt, C.W.; Nichols, B.D.: Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries. J. Comput. Phys. 39, 201–225 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9991(81)90145-5 Article Google Scholar
Roache, P.J.: Perspective: a method for uniform reporting of grid refinement studies. J. Fluids Eng. 1994(116), 405–413 (1994)Article Google Scholar
Guo, S.; Chen, S.; Huang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Jin, S.: CFD and experimental investigations of drag force on spherical leak detector in pipe flows at high Reynolds number. Comput. Model. Eng. Sci. 101(1), 59–80 (2014)Google Scholar
Ahmadi, M.; Kuriqi, A.; Nezhad, H.M.; Ghaderi, A.; Mohammadi, M.: Innovative configuration of vertical slot fishway to enhance fish swimming conditions. J. Hydrodyn. 34, 917–933 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42241-022-0071-y Article Google Scholar
Ahmadi, M.; Ghaderi, A.; MohammadNezhad, H.; Kuriqi, A.; Di Francesco, S.J.W.: Numerical investigation of hydraulics in a vertical slot fishway with upgraded configurations. Water 13, 2711 (2021)Article Google Scholar
Celik, I.B.; Ghia, U.; Roache, P.J.; Freitas, C.J.J.: Procedure for estimation and reporting of uncertainty due to discretization in CFD applications. J. Fluids Eng. Trans. ASME (2008). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2960953 Article Google Scholar
Li, S.; Yang, J.; Ansell, A.: Evaluation of pool-type fish passage with labyrinth weirs. Sustainability (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031098 Article Google Scholar
Ghaderi, A.; Dasineh, M.; Aristodemo, F.; Aricò, C.: Numerical simulations of the flow field of a submerged hydraulic jump over triangular macroroughnesses. Water 13(5), 674 (2021)Article Google Scholar
Branco, P.; Santos, J.M.; Katopodis, C.; Pinheiro, A.; Ferreira, M.T.: Pool-type fishways: two different morpho-ecological cyprinid species facing plunging and streaming flows. PLoS ONE 8, e65089 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065089 Article Google Scholar
Baki, A.B.M.; Zhu, D.Z.; Harwood, A.; Lewis, A.; Healey, K.: Rock-weir fishway I: flow regimes and hydraulic characteristics. J. Ecohydraulics 2, 122–141 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/24705357.2017.1369182 Article Google Scholar
Dizabadi, S.; Azimi, A.H.: Hydraulic and turbulence structure of triangular labyrinth weir-pool fishways. River Res. Appl. 36, 280–295 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3581 Article Google Scholar
Faizal, W.M.; Ghazali, N.N.N.; Khor, C.Y.; Zainon, M.Z.; Ibrahim, N.B.; Razif, R.M.: Turbulent kinetic energy of flow during inhale and exhale to characterize the severity of obstructive sleep apnea patient. Comput. Model. Eng. Sci. 136(1), 43–61 (2023)Google Scholar
Cotel, A.J.; Webb, P.W.; Tritico, H.: Do brown trout choose locations with reduced turbulence? Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 135, 610–619 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1577/T04-196.1 Article Google Scholar
Hargreaves, D.M.; Wright, N.G.: On the use of the k–ε model in commercial CFD software to model the neutral atmospheric boundary layer. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 95, 355–369 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2006.08.002 Article Google Scholar
Kupferschmidt, C.; Zhu, D.Z.: Physical modelling of pool and weir fishways with rock weirs. River Res. Appl. 33, 1130–1142 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.3157 Article Google Scholar
Romão, F.; Quaresma, A.L.; Santos, J.M.; Amaral, S.D.; Branco, P.; Pinheiro, A.N.: Multislot fishway improves entrance performance and fish transit time over vertical slots. Water (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/w13030275 Article Google Scholar

Download references

원문보기

Study on the critical sediment concentration determining the optimal transport capability of submarine sediment flows with different particle size composition

Yupeng Ren ^abc, Huiguang Zhou ^cd, Houjie Wang ^ab, Xiao Wu ^ab, Guohui Xu ^cd, Qingsheng Meng ^cd

Abstract

해저 퇴적물 흐름은 퇴적물을 심해로 운반하는 주요 수단 중 하나이며, 종종 장거리를 이동하고 수십 또는 수백 킬로미터에 걸쳐 상당한 양의 퇴적물을 운반합니다. 그것의 강력한 파괴력은 종종 이동 과정에서 잠수함 유틸리티에 심각한 손상을 초래합니다.

퇴적물 흐름의 퇴적물 농도는 주변 해수와의 밀도차를 결정하며, 이 밀도 차이는 퇴적물 흐름의 흐름 능력을 결정하여 이송된 퇴적물의 최종 퇴적 위치에 영향을 미칩니다. 본 논문에서는 다양한 미사 및 점토 중량비(미사/점토 비율이라고 함)를 갖는 다양한 퇴적물 농도의 퇴적물 흐름을 수로 테스트를 통해 연구합니다.

우리의 테스트 결과는 특정 퇴적물 구성에 대해 퇴적물 흐름이 가장 빠르게 이동하는 임계 퇴적물 농도가 있음을 나타냅니다. 4가지 미사/점토 비율 각각에 대한 임계 퇴적물 농도와 이에 상응하는 최대 속도가 구해집니다. 결과는 점토 함량이 임계 퇴적물 농도와 선형적으로 음의 상관 관계가 있음을 나타냅니다.

퇴적물 농도가 증가함에 따라 퇴적물의 흐름 거동은 흐름 상태에서 붕괴된 상태로 변환되고 흐름 거동이 변화하는 두 탁한 현탁액의 유체 특성은 모두 Bingham 유체입니다.

또한 본 논문에서는 퇴적물 흐름 내 입자 배열을 분석하여 위에서 언급한 결과에 대한 미시적 설명도 제공합니다.

Submarine sediment flows is one of the main means for transporting sediment to the deep sea, often traveling long-distance and transporting significant volumes of sediment for tens or even hundreds of kilometers. Its strong destructive force often causes serious damage to submarine utilities on its course of movement. The sediment concentration of the sediment flow determines its density difference with the ambient seawater, and this density difference determines the flow ability of the sediment flow, and thus affects the final deposition locations of the transported sediment. In this paper, sediment flows of different sediment concentration with various silt and clay weight ratios (referred to as silt/clay ratio) are studied using flume tests. Our test results indicate that there is a critical sediment concentration at which sediment flows travel the fastest for a specific sediment composition. The critical sediment concentrations and their corresponding maximum velocities for each of the four silt/clay ratios are obtained. The results further indicate that the clay content is linearly negatively correlated with the critical sediment concentration. As the sediment concentration increases, the flow behaviors of sediment flows transform from the flow state to the collapsed state, and the fluid properties of the two turbid suspensions with changing flow behaviors are both Bingham fluids. Additionally, this paper also provides a microscopic explanation of the above-mentioned results by analyzing the arrangement of particles within the sediment flow.

Introduction

Submarine sediment flows are important carriers for sea floor sediment movement and may carry and transport significant volumes of sediment for tens or even hundreds of kilometers (Prior et al., 1987; Pirmez and Imran, 2003; Zhang et al., 2018). Earthquakes, storms, and floods may all trigger submarine sediment flow events (Hsu et al., 2008; Piper and Normark, 2009; Pope et al., 2017b; Gavey et al., 2017). Sediment flows have strong forces during the movement, which will cause great harm to submarine structures such as cables and pipelines (Pope et al., 2017a). It was first confirmed that the cable breaking event caused by the sediment flow occurred in 1929. The sediment flow triggered by the Grand Banks earthquake damaged 12 cables. According to the time sequence of the cable breaking, the maximum velocity of the sediment flow is as high as 28 m/s (Heezen and Ewing, 1952; Kuenen, 1952; Heezen et al., 1954). Subsequent research shows that the lowest turbidity velocity that can break the cable also needs to reach 19 m/s (Piper et al., 1988). Since then, there have been many damage events of submarine cables and oil and gas pipelines caused by sediment flows in the world (Hsu et al., 2008; Carter et al., 2012; Cattaneo et al., 2012; Carter et al., 2014). During its movement, the sediment flow will gradually deposit a large amount of sediment carried by it along the way, that is, the deposition process of the sediment flow. On the one hand, this process brings a large amount of terrestrial nutrients and other materials to the ocean, while on the other hand, it causes damage and burial to benthic organisms, thus forming the largest sedimentary accumulation on Earth – submarine fans, which are highly likely to become good reservoirs for oil and gas resources (Daly, 1936; Yuan et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2022). The study on sediment flows (such as, the study of flow velocity and the forces acting on seabed structures) can provide important references for the safe design of seabed structures, the protection of submarine ecosystems, and exploration of turbidity sediments related oil and gas deposits. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the movement of sediment flows.

The sediment flow, as a highly sediment-concentrated fluid flowing on the sea floor, has a dense bottom layer and a dilute turbulent cloud. Observations at the Monterey Canyon indicated that the sediment flow can maintain its movement over long distances if its bottom has a relatively high sediment concentration. This dense bottom layer can be very destructive along its movement path to any facilities on the sea floor (Paull et al., 2018; Heerema et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). The sediment flow mentioned in this research paper is the general term of sediment density flow.

The sediment flow, which occurs on the seafloor, has the potential to cause erosion along its path. In this process, the suspended sediment is replenished, allowing the sediment flow to maintain its continuous flow capacity (Zhao et al., 2018). The dynamic force of sediment flow movement stem from its own gravity and density difference with surrounding water. In cases that the gravity drive of the slope is absent (on a flat sea floor), the flow velocity and distance of sediment flows are essentially determined by the sediment composition and concentration of the sediment flows as previous studies have demonstrated. Ilstad et al. (2004) conducted underwater flow tests in a sloped tank and employed high speed video camera to perform particle tracking. The results indicated that the premixed sand-rich and clay-rich slurries demonstrated different flow velocity and flow behavior. Using mixed kaolinite(d50 = 6 μm) and silica flour(d50 = 9 μm) in three compositions with total volumetric concentration ranged 22% or 28%, Felix and Peakall (2006) carried out underwater flow tests in a 5° slope Perspex channel and found that the flow ability of sediment flows is different depending on sediment compositions and concentrations. Sumner et al. (2009) used annular flume experiments to investigate the depositional dynamics and deposits of waning sediment-laden flows, finding that decelerating fast flows with fixed sand content and variable mud content resulted in four different deposit types. Chowdhury and Testik (2011) used lock-exchange tank, and experimented the kaolin clay sediment flows in the concentration range of 25–350 g/L, and predicted the fluid mud sediment flows propagation characteristics, but this study focused on giving sediment flows propagate phase transition time parameters, and is limited to clay. Lv et al. (2017) found through experiments that the rheological properties and flow behavior of kaolin clay (d50 = 3.7 μm) sediment flows were correlated to clay concentrations. In the field monitoring conducted by Liu et al. (2023) at the Manila Trench in the South China Sea in 2021, significant differences in the velocity, movement distance, and flow morphology of turbidity currents were observed. These differences may be attributed to variations in the particle composition of the turbidity currents.

On low and gentle slopes, although sediment flow with sand as the main sediment composition moves faster, it is difficult to propagate over long distances because sand has greater settling velocity and subaqueous angle of repose. Whereas the sediment flows with silt and clay as main composition may maintain relatively stable currents. Although its movement speed is slow, it has the ability to propagate over long distances because of the low settling rate of the fine particles (Ilstad et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2023). In a field observation at the Gaoping submarine canyon, the sediments collected from the sediment flows exhibited grain size gradation and the sediment was mostly composed of silt and clay (Liu et al., 2012). At the largest deltas in the world, for instance, the Mississippi River Delta, the sediments are mainly composed of silt and clay, which generally distributed along the coast in a wide range and provided the sediment sources for further distribution. The sediment flows originated and transported sediment from the coast to the deep sea are therefore share the same sediment compositions as delta sediments. To study the sediment flows composed of silt and clay is of great importance.

The sediment concentration of the sediment flows determines the density difference between the sediment flows and the ambient water and plays a key role in its flow ability. For the sediment flow with sediment composed of silt and clay, low sediment concentration means low density and therefore leads to low flow ability; however, although high sediment concentration results in high density, since there is cohesion between fine particles, it changes fluid properties and leads to low flow ability as well. Therefore, there should be a critical sediment concentration with mixed composition of silt and clay, at which the sediment flow maintains its strongest flow capacity and have the highest movement speed. In other words, the two characteristics of particle diameter and concentration of the sediment flow determine its own motion ability, which, if occurs, may become the most destructive force to submarine structures.

The objectives of this work was to study how the sediment composition (measured in relative weight of silt and clay, and referred as silt/clay ratio) and sediment concentration affect flow ability and behavior of the sediment flows, and to quantify the critical sediment concentration at which the sediment flows reached the greatest flow velocity under the experiment setting. We used straight flume without slope and conducted a series of flume tests with varying sediment compositions (silt-rich or clay-rich) and concentrations (96 to 1212 g/L). Each sediment flow sample was tested and analyzed for rheological properties using a rheometer, in order to characterize the relationship between flow behavior and rheological properties. Combined with the particle diameter, density and viscosity characteristics of the sediment flows measured in the experiment, a numerical modeling study is conducted, which are mutually validated with the experimental results.

The sediment concentration determines the arrangements of the sediment particles in the turbid suspension, and the arrangement impacts the fluid properties of the turbid suspension. The microscopic mode of particle arrangement in the turbid suspension can be constructed to further analyze the relationship between the fluid properties of turbid suspension and the flow behaviors of the sediment flow, and then characterize the critical sediment concentration at which the sediment flow runs the fastest. A simplified microscopic model of particle arrangement in turbid suspension was constructed to analyze the microscopic arrangement characteristics of sediment particles in turbid suspension with the fastest velocity.

Section snippets

Equipment and materials

The sediment flows flow experiments were performed in a Perspex channel with smooth transparent walls. The layout and dimensions of the experimental set-up were shown in Fig. 1. The bottom of the channel was flat and straight, and a gate was arranged to separate the two tanks. In order to study the flow capacity of turbidity currents from the perspective of their own composition (particle size distribution and concentration), we used a straight channel instead of an inclined one, to avoid any

Relationship between sediment flow flow velocity and sediment concentration

After the sediment flow is generated, its movement in the first half (50 cm) of the channel is relatively stable, and there is obvious shock diffusion in the second half. The reason is that the excitation wave (similar to the surge) will be formed during the sediment flow movement, and its speed is much faster than the speed of the sediment flow head. When the excitation wave reaches the tail of the channel, it will be reflected, thus affecting the subsequent flow of the sediment flow.

Sediment flows motion simulation based on FLOW-3D

As a relatively mature 3D fluid simulation software, FLOW-3D can accurately predict the free surface flow, and has been used to simulate the movement process of sediment flows for many times (Heimsund, 2007). The model adopted in this paper is RNG turbulence model, which can better deal with the flow with high strain rate and is suitable for the simulation of sediment flows with variable shape during movement. The governing equations of the numerical model involved include continuity equation,

Conclusions

In this study, we conducted a series of sediment flow flume tests with mixed silt and clay sediment samples in four silt/clay ratios on a flat slope. Rheological measurements were carried out on turbid suspension samples and microstructure analysis of the sediment particle arrangements was conducted, we concluded that:

(1)The flow velocity of the sediment flow is controlled by the sediment concentration and its own particle diameter composition, the flow velocity increased with the increase of the

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant no. 42206055]; the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant no. 41976049]; and the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant no. 42272327].

References (39)

M.R. Chowdhury et al.Laboratory testing of mathematical models for high-concentration fluid mud turbidity currentsOcean Eng.(2011)
R. Gavey et al.Frequent sediment density flows during 2006 to 2015, triggered by competing seismic and weather events: Observations from subsea cable breaks off southern TaiwanMar. Geol.(2017)
B.C. Heezen et al.Further evidence for a turbidity current following the 1929 Grand Banks earthquakeDeep-Sea Res.(1954)
T. Ilstad et al.Subaqueous debris flow behaviour and its dependence on the sand/clay ratio: a laboratory study using particle trackingMar. Geol.(2004)
G. ParkerConditions for the ignition of catastrophically erosive turbidity currentsMar. Geol.(1982)
C. Pirmez et al.Reconstruction of turbidity currents in Amazon ChannelMar. Pet. Geol.(2003)
E.L. Pope et al.Which earthquakes trigger damaging submarine mass movements: Insights from a global record of submarine cable breaks?Mar. Geol.(2017)
E.L. Pope et al.Damaging sediment density flows triggered by tropical cyclonesEarth Planet. Sci. Lett.(2017)
Z. Wang et al.Direct evidence of a high-concentration basal layer in a submarine turbidity currentDeep Sea Res. Part(2020)
R.A. BagnoldAuto-suspension of transported sediment; turbidity currentsProc. R. Soc. Lond.(1962)
L. Carter et al.Near-synchronous and delayed initiation of long run-out submarine sediment flows from a record-breaking river flood, offshore TaiwanGeophys. Res. Lett.(2012)
L. Carter et al.Insights into submarine geohazards from breaks in subsea telecommunication cablesOceanography(2014)
A. Cattaneo et al.Searching for the seafloor signature of the 21 May 2003 Boumerdès earthquake offshore Central AlgeriaNat. Hazard. Earth. Sys.(2012)
S. ChoiLayer-averaged modeling of two-dimensional turbidity currents with a dissipative; galerkin finite element method; part i, formulation and application exampleJ. Hydraul. Res.(1998)
S.U. Choi et al.k-ε Turbulence modeling of density currents developing two dimensionally on a slopeJ. Hydraul. Eng.(2002)
R.A. DalyOrigin of submarine canyonsAm. J. Sci.(1936)
M. Felix et al.Transformation of debris flows into turbidity currents : mechanisms inferred from laboratory experimentsSedimentology(2006)
F.H. Harlow et al.Turbulence transport equationsPhys. Fluids(1967)
G.J. Heerema et al.What determines the downstream evolution of turbidity currents?Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.(2020)

There are more references available in the full text version of this article.

원본 보기

Figure 1. Three-dimensional finite element model of local scouring of semi-exposed submarine cable.

반노출 해저케이블의 국부 정련과정 및 영향인자에 대한 수치적 연구

Numerical Study of the Local Scouring Process and Influencing Factors of Semi-Exposed Submarine Cables

by Qishun Li,Yanpeng Hao^*,Peng Zhang,Haotian Tan,Wanxing Tian,Linhao Chen andLin Yang

School of Electric Power Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China

^*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.J. Mar. Sci. Eng.2023, 11(7), 1349; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11071349

Received: 10 June 2023 / Revised: 19 June 2023 / Accepted: 27 June 2023 / Published: 1 July 2023(This article belongs to the Section Ocean Engineering)

일부 수식이 손상되어 표시될 수 있습니다. 이 경우 원문을 참조하시기 바랍니다.

Abstract

Local scouring might result in the spanning of submarine cables, endangering their mechanical and electrical properties. In this contribution, a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulation model is developed using FLOW-3D, and the scouring process of semi-exposed submarine cables is investigated. The effects of the sediment critical Shields number, sediment density, and ocean current velocity on local scouring are discussed, and variation rules for the submarine cables’ spanning time are provided. The results indicate that three scouring holes are formed around the submarine cables. The location of the bottom of the holes corresponds to that of the maximum shear velocity. The continuous development of scouring holes at the wake position leads to the spanning of the submarine cables. The increase in the sediment’s critical Shields number and sediment density, as well as the decrease in the ocean current velocity, will extend the time for maintaining the stability of the upstream scouring hole and retard the development velocity of the wake position and downstream scouring holes. The spanning time has a cubic relationship with the sediment’s critical Shields number, a linear relationship with the sediment density, and an exponential relationship with the ocean current velocity. In this paper, the local scouring process of semi-exposed submarine cables is studied, which provides a theoretical basis for the operation and maintenance of submarine cables.

Keywords:

submarine cable; local scouring; numerical simulation; computational fluid dynamics

1. Introduction

As a key piece of equipment in cross-sea power grids, submarine cables are widely used to connect autonomous power grids, supply power to islands or offshore platforms, and transmit electric power generated by marine renewable energy installations to onshore substations [1]. Once submarine cables break down due to natural disasters or human-made damage, the normal operation of other marine electric power equipment connected to them may be affected. These chain reactions will cause great economic losses and serious social impacts [2].

To protect submarine cables, they are usually buried 1 to 3 m below the seabed [3]. However, submarine cables are still confronted with potential threats from the complex subsea environment. Under the influence of fishing, anchor damage, ocean current scouring, and other factors, the sediment above submarine cables will always inevitably migrate. When a submarine cable is partially exposed, the scouring at this position will be exacerbated; eventually, it will cause the submarine cable to span. According to a field investigation of the 500 kV oil-filled submarine cable that is part of the Hainan networking system, the total length of the span is 49 m [4]. Under strong ocean currents, spanning submarine cables may experience vortex-induced vibrations. Fatigue stress caused by vortex-induced vibrations may lead to metal sheath rupture [5], which endangers the mechanical and electrical properties of submarine cables. Therefore, understanding the local scouring processes of partially exposed submarine cables is crucial for predicting scouring patterns. This is the basis for developing effective operation and maintenance strategies for submarine cables.

The mechanism and influencing factors of sediment erosion have been examined by researchers around the world. In 1988, Sumer [6] conducted experiments to show that the shedding vortex in the wake of a pipeline would increase the Shields parameter by 3–4 times, which would result in severe scouring. In 1991, Chiew [7] performed experiments to prove that the maximum scouring depth could be obtained when the pipeline was located on a flat bed and was scoured by a unidirectional water flow. Based on the test results, they provided a prediction formula for the maximum scouring depth. In 2003, Mastbergen [8] proposed a one-dimensional, steady-state numerical model of turbidity currents, which considered the negative pore pressures in the seabed. The calculated results of this model were basically consistent with the actual scouring of a submarine canyon. In 2007, Dey [9] presented a semitheoretical model for the computation of the maximum clear-water scour depth below underwater pipelines in uniform sediments under a steady flow, and the predicted scour depth in clear water satisfactorily agreed with the observed values. In 2008, Dey [10] conducted experiments on clear-water scour below underwater pipelines under a steady flow and obtained a variation pattern of the depth of the scouring hole. In 2008, Liang [11] used a two-dimensional numerical simulation to study the scouring process of a tube bundle under the action of currents and waves. They discovered that, compared with the scouring of a single tube, the scouring depth of the tube bundle was deeper, and the scouring time was longer. In 2012, Yang [12] found that placing rubber sheets under pipes can greatly accelerate their self-burial. The rubber sheets had the best performance when their length was about 1.5 times the size of the pipe. In 2020, Li [13] investigated the two-dimensional local scour beneath two submarine pipelines in tandem under wave-plus-current conditions via numerical simulation. They found that for conditions involving waves plus a low-strength current, the scour pattern beneath the two pipelines behaved like that in the pure-wave condition. Conversely, when the current had equal strength to the wave-induced flow, the scour pattern beneath the two pipelines resembled that in the pure-current condition. In 2020, Guan [14] studied and discussed the interactive coupling effects among a vibrating pipeline, flow field, and scour process through experiments, and the experimental data showed that the evolution of the scour hole had significant influences on the pipeline vibrations. In 2021, Liu [15] developed a two-dimensional finite element numerical model and researched the local scour around a vibrating pipeline. The numerical results showed that the maximum vibration amplitude of the pipeline could reach about 1.2 times diameter, and the maximum scour depth occurred on the wake side of the vibrating pipeline. In 2021, Huang [16] carried out two-dimensional numerical simulations to investigate the scour beneath a single pipeline and piggyback pipelines subjected to an oscillatory flow condition at a KC number of 11 and captured typical steady-streaming structures around the pipelines due to the oscillatory flow condition. In 2021, Cui [17] investigated the characteristics of the riverbed scour profile for a pipeline buried at different depths under the condition of riverbed sediments with different particle sizes. The results indicated that, in general, the equilibrium scour depth changed in a spoon shape with the gradual increase in the embedment ratio. In 2022, Li [18] used numerical simulation to study the influence of the burial depth of partially buried pipelines on the surrounding flow field, but they did not investigate the scour depth. In 2022, Zhu [19] performed experiments to prove that the scour hole propagation rate under a pipeline decreases with an increasing pipeline embedment ratio and rises with the KC number. In 2022, Najafzadeh [20] proposed equations for the prediction of the scouring propagation rate around pipelines due to currents based on a machine learning model, and the prediction results were consistent with the experimental data. In 2023, Ma [21] used the computational fluid dynamics coarse-grained discrete element method to simulate the scour process around a pipeline. The results showed that this method can effectively reduce the considerable need for computing resources and excessive computation time. In 2023, through numerical simulations, Hu [22] discovered that the water velocity and the pipeline diameter had a significant effect on the depth of scouring.

In the preceding works, the researchers investigated the mechanism of sediment scouring and the effect of various factors on the local scouring of submarine pipelines. However, submarine cables are buried beneath the seabed, while submarine pipelines are erected above the seabed. The difference in laying methods leads to a large discrepancy between their local scouring processes. Therefore, the conclusions of the above investigations are not applicable to the local scouring of submarine cables. Currently, there is no report on the research of the local scouring of partially exposed submarine cables.

In this paper, a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) finite element model, based on two-phase flow, is established using FLOW-3D. The local scouring process of semi-exposed submarine cables under steady-state ocean currents is studied, and the variation rules of the depth and the shape of the scouring holes, as well as the shear velocity with time, are obtained. By setting different critical Shields numbers of the sediment, different sediment densities, and different ocean current velocities, the change rule of the scouring holes’ development rate and the time required for the spanning of submarine cables are explored.

2. Sediment Scouring Model

In the sediment scouring model, the sediment is set as the dispersed particle, which is regarded as a kind of quasifluid. In this context, sediment scouring is considered as a two-phase flow process between the liquid phase and solid particle phase. The sediment in this process is further divided into two categories: one is suspended in the fluid, and the other is deposited on the bottom.When the local Shields number of sediment is greater than the critical Shields number, the deposited sediment will be transformed into the suspended sediment under the action of ocean currents. The calculation formulae of the local Shields numbers θ and the critical Shields numbers

θ_cr of sediment is given as [23,24

]

𝜃=𝑈2𝑓(𝜌𝑠/𝜌𝑓−1)𝑔𝑑50,�=��2(��/��−1)��50,(1)

𝜃𝑐𝑟=0.31+1.2𝐷∗+0.055(1−𝑒−0.02𝐷∗),��=0.31+1.2�*+0.055(1−�−0.02�*),(2)

𝐷∗=𝑑50𝜌𝑓(𝜌𝑠−𝜌𝑓)𝑔/𝜇2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√3,�*=�50��(��−��)�/�23,(3)where

U_f is the shearing velocity of bed surface,

ρ_s is the density of the sediment particle,

ρ_f is the fluid density, g is the acceleration of gravity, d

₅₀ is the median size of sediment, and μ is the dynamic viscosity of sediment.And each sediment particle suspended in the fluid obeys the equations for mass conservation and energy conservation

∂𝑐𝑠∂𝑡+∇⋅(𝑢𝑐𝑠)=0,∂��∂�+∇⋅(�¯��)=0,(4)

∂𝑢𝑠∂𝑡+𝑢⋅∇𝑢𝑠=−1𝜌𝑠∇𝑃+𝐹−𝐾𝑓𝑠𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑟,∂��∂�+�¯⋅∇��=−1��∇�+�−��,(5)where

c_s is the concentration of the sediment particle,

𝑢�¯ is the mean velocity vector of the fluid and the sediment particle,

u_s is the velocity of the sediment particle,

f_s is the volume fraction of the sediment particle, P is the pressure, F is the volumetric and viscous force, K is the drag force, and

u_r is the relative velocity.

3. Numerical Setup and Modeling

In this paper, a three-dimensional submarine cable local scouring simulation model is established by FLOW-3D. Based on the numerical simulation, the process of the submarine cable, which gradually changes from semi-exposed to the spanning state under the steady-state ocean current, is studied. The geometric modeling, the mesh division, the physical field setup, and the grid independent test of CFD numerical model are as follows.

3.1. Geometric Modeling and Mesh Division

A three-dimensional (3D) numerical model of the local scouring of a semi-exposed submarine cable is established, which is shown in Figure 1. The dimensions of the model are marked in Figure 1. The inlet direction of the ocean current is defined as the upstream of the submarine cable (referred to as upstream), and the outlet direction of the ocean current is defined as the downstream of the submarine cable (referred to as downstream).

Figure 1. Three-dimensional finite element model of local scouring of semi-exposed submarine cable.

The submarine cable with a diameter of 0.2 m is positioned on sediment that is initially in a semi-exposed state. When the length of the span is short, the submarine cable will not show obvious deformation due to gravity or scouring from the ocean current. Therefore, the submarine cable surface is set as the fixed boundary. The model’s left boundary is set as the inlet, the right boundary is set as the outlet, the front and rear boundaries are set as symmetry, and the bottom boundary is set as the non-slip wall. Since the water depth above the submarine cable is more than 0.6 m in practice, the top boundary of the model is also set as symmetry. The sediment near the inlet and the outlet will be carried by ocean currents, which leads to the abnormal scouring terrain. At each end of the sediment, a baffle (thickness of 3 cm) is installed to ensure that the simulation results can reflect the real situation.

Due to the fact that the flow field around the semi-exposed submarine cable is not a simple two-dimensional symmetrical distribution, it should be solved by three-dimensional numerical simulation. Considering the accuracy and efficiency of the calculation, the size of mesh is set to 0.02 m. The total number of meshes after the dissection is 133,254.

3.2. Physical Field Setup

The CFD finite element model contains four physical field modules: sediment scouring module, gravity and non-inertial reference frame module, density evaluation module, and viscosity and turbulence module. In this paper, the renormalization group (RNG) k–ε turbulence model is used, which has high computational accuracy for turbulent vortices. Therefore, this turbulence model is suitable for calculating the sediment scouring process around the semi-exposed submarine cable [25]. The key parameters of the numerical simulation are referring to the survey results of submarine sediments in the Korean Peninsula [26], as listed in Table 1.Table 1. Key parameters of numerical simulation.

3.3. Mesh Independent Test

In order to eliminate errors caused by the quantity of grids in the calculation process, two sizes of mesh are set on the validation model, and the scour profiles under different mesh sizes are compared. The validation model is shown in Figure 2, and the scouring terrain under different mesh size is given in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Validation model.

Figure 3. Scouring terrain under different mesh sizes.

It can be seen from Figure 3 that with the increase in the number of meshes, the scouring terrain of the verification model changes slightly, and the scouring depth is basically unchanged. Considering the accuracy of the numerical simulation and the calculation’s time cost, it is reasonable to consider setting the mesh size to 0.02 m.

4. Results and Analysis

4.1. Analysis of Local Scouring Process

Based on the CFD finite element numerical simulation, the local scouring process of the submarine cable under the steady-state ocean current is analyzed. The end time of the simulation is 9 h, the initial time step is 0.01 s, and the fluid velocity is 0.40 m/s. Simulation results are saved every minute. Figure 4 illustrates the scouring terrain around the semi-exposed submarine cable, which has been scoured by the steady-state current for 5 h.

Figure 4. Scouring terrain around semi-exposed submarine cable (scour for 5 h).

As can be seen from Figure 4, three scouring holes were separately formed in the upstream wake position and downstream of the semi-exposed submarine cable. The scouring holes are labeled according to their locations. The variation of the scouring terrain around the semi-exposed submarine cable over time is given in Figure 5. The red circle in the picture corresponds to the position of the submarine cable, and the red box in the legend marks the time when the submarine cable is spanning.

Figure 5. Variation of scouring terrain around semi-exposed submarine cable adapted to time.

From Figure 5, in the first hour of scouring, the upstream (−0.5 m to −0.1 m) and downstream (0.43 m to 1.5 m) scouring holes appeared. The upstream scouring hole was relatively flat with depth of 0.04 m. The depth of the downstream scouring hole increased with the increase in distance, and the maximum depth was 0.13 m. The scouring hole that developed at the wake position was very shallow, and its depth was only 0.007 m.

In the second hour of scouring, the upstream scouring hole’s depth remained nearly constant. The depth of the downstream scouring hole only increased by 0.002 m. The scouring hole at the wake position developed steadily, and its depth increased from 0.007 m to 0.014 m.

The upstream and downstream scouring holes did not continue to develop during the third to the sixth hour. Compared to the first two hours, the development of scouring holes at the wake position accelerated significantly, with an average growth rate of 0.028 m/h. The growth rate in the fifth hour of the scouring hole at the wake position was slightly faster than the other times. After 6 h of scouring, the sediment on the right side of the submarine cable had been hollowed out.

In the seventh and the eighth hour of scouring, the upstream scouring hole’s depth increased slightly, the downstream scouring hole still remained stable, and the depth of the scouring hole at wake position increased by 0.019 m. The sediment under the submarine cable was gradually eroded as well. By the end of the eighth hour, the lower right part of the submarine cable had been exposed to water as well.

At 8 h 21 min of the scouring, the submarine cable was completely spanned, and the scouring holes were connected to each other. Within the next 10 min, the development of the scouring holes sped up significantly, and the maximum depth of scouring holes increased greatly to 0.27 m.

In reference [17], researchers have studied the local scouring process of semi-buried pipelines in sandy riverbeds through experiments. The test results show that the scouring process can be divided into a start-up stage, micropore formation stage, extension stage, and equilibrium stage. In this paper, the first three stages are simulated, and the results are in good agreement with the experiment, which proves the accuracy of the present numerical model.

In this research, the velocity of ocean currents at the sediment surface is defined as the shear velocity, which plays an important role in the process of local scouring. Figure 6 provides visual data on how the shear velocity varies over time.

Figure 6. Shear velocity changes in the scouring process.

The semi-exposed submarine cable protrudes from the seabed, which makes the shear velocity of its surface much higher than other locations. After the submarine cable is spanned, the shear velocity of the scouring hole surface below it is taken. This is the reason for the sudden change of shear velocity at the submarine cable’s location in Figure 6.The shear velocity in the initial state of the upstream scouring hole is obviously greater than in subsequent times. After 1 h of scouring, the shear velocity in the upstream scouring hole rapidly decreased from 1.1 × 10

⁻² m/s to 3.98 × 10

⁻³ m/s and remained stable until the end of the sixth hour. This phenomenon explains why the upstream scouring hole developed rapidly in the first hour but remained stable for the following 5 h.The shear velocity in the downstream scouring hole reduced at first and then increased; its initial value was 1.41 × 10

⁻² m/s. It took approximately 5 h for the shear velocity to stabilize, and the stable shear velocity was 2.26 × 10

⁻³ m/s. Therefore, compared with the upstream scouring hole, the downstream scouring hole was deeper and required more time to reach stability.The initial shear velocity in the scouring hole at the wake position was only 7.1 × 10

⁻³ m/s, which almost does not change in the first hour. This leads to a very slow development of the scouring hole at the wake position in the early stages. The maximum shear velocity in this scouring hole gradually increased to 1.05 × 10

⁻² m/s from the second to the fifth hour, and then decreased to 6.61 × 10

⁻³ m/s by the end of the eighth hour. This is why the scouring hole at the wake position grows fastest around the fifth hour. Consistent with the pattern of change in the scouring hole’s terrain, the location of the maximal shear velocity also shifted to the right with time.

The shear velocity of all three scouring holes rose dramatically in the last hour. Combined with the terrain in Figure 5, this can be attributed to the complete spanning of the submarine cable.

From Equations (3)–(5), one can see the movement of the sediment is related directly with the sediment’s critical Shields number, sediment density, and ocean current velocity. Based on the parameters in Table 1, the influence of the above parameters on the local scouring process of semi-exposed submarine cables will be discussed.

4.2. Influence Factors

4.2.1. Sediment’s Critical Shields Number

The sediment’s critical Shields number

θ_cr is set as 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, and 0.07, and the variations of scouring terrain over time under each

θ_cr are displayed in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Influence of sediment’s critical Shields number

θ_cr on local scouring around semi-exposed submarine cable: (a

) θ_cr = 0.02; (b

) θ_cr = 0.03; (c

) θ_cr = 0.04; (d

) θ_cr = 0.05; (e

) θ_cr = 0.06; and (f

) θ_cr = 0.07.From Figure 7, one can see that a change in

θ_cr will affect the depth of the upstream scouring hole and the development speed of the scouring hole at the wake position, but it will have no significant impact on the expansion of the downstream scouring hole.Under conditions of different

θ_cr, the upstream scouring hole will reach a temporary plateau within 1 h, at which time the stable depth will be about 0.04 m. When

θ_cr ≤ 0.05, the upstream scouring hole will continue to expand after a few hours. The stable time is obviously affected by

θ_cr, which will gradually increase from 1 h to 11 h with the increase in

θ_cr. The terrain of the upstream scouring hole will gradually convert to deep on the left and to shallow on the right. Since the scouring hole at the wake position has not been stable, its state at the time of submarine cable spanning is studied emphatically. In the whole process of scouring, the scouring hole at the wake position continues to develop and does not reach a stable state. With the increase in

θ_cr, the development velocity of the scouring hole at the wake position will decrease considerably. Its average evolution velocity decreases from 3.88 cm/h to 1.62 cm/h, and its depth decreases from 21.9 cm to 18.8 cm. Under the condition of each

θ_cr, the downstream scouring hole will stabilize within 1 h, and the stable depth will be basically unchanged (all about 13.5 cm).As

θ_cr increases, so does the sediment’s ability to withstand shearing forces, which will cause it to become increasingly difficult to be eroded or carried away by ocean currents. This effect has been directly reflected in the depth of scouring holes (upstream and wake position). Due to the blocking effect of semi-exposed submarine cables, the wake is elongated, which is why the downstream scouring hole develops before the scouring hole at the wake position and quickly reaches a stable state. However, due to the high wake intensity, this process is not significantly affected by the change of

θ_cr.

4.2.2. Sediment Density

The density of sediment

ρ_s is set as 1550 kg/m

³, 1600 kg/m

³, 1650 kg/m

³, 1700 kg/m

³, 1750 kg/m

³, and 1800 kg/m

³, and the variation of scouring terrain over time under each

ρ_s are displayed in Figure 8.

Figure 8. Influence of sediment density

ρ_s on local scouring around semi-exposed submarine cable: (a

) ρ_s = 1550 kg/m

³; (b) ρ_s = 1600 kg/m

³; (c) ρ_s = 1650 kg/m

³; (d) ρ_s = 1700 kg/m

³; (e) ρ_s = 1750 kg/m

³; and (f

) ρ_s = 1800 kg/m

³.From Figure 8, one can see that a change in

ρ_s will also affect the depth of the upstream scouring hole and the development speed of the scouring hole at the wake position. In addition, it can even have an impact on the downstream scouring hole depth.Under different

ρ_s conditions, the upstream scouring hole will always reach a temporary stable state in 1 h, at which time the stable depth will be 0.04 m. When

ρ_s ≤ 1750 kg/m

³, the upstream scouring hole will continue to expand after a few hours. The stabilization time of upstream scouring hole is more clearly affected by

ρ_s, which will gradually increase from 3 h to 13 h with the increase in

ρ_s. The terrain of the upstream scouring hole will gradually change to deep on the left and to shallow on the right. Since the scouring hole at the wake position has not been stable, its state at the time of the submarine cable spanning is studied emphatically, too. In the whole process of scouring, the scouring hole at the wake position continues to develop and does not reach a stable state. When

ρ_s is large, the development rate of scouring hole obviously decreased with time. With the increase in

ρ_s, the development velocity of the scouring hole at the wake position reduces from 3.38 cm/h to 1.14 cm/h, and the depth of this scouring hole declines from 20 cm to 15 cm. As

ρ_s increases, the stabilization time of the downstream scouring hole increases from less than 1 h to about 2 h, but the stabilization depth of the downstream scouring hole remains essentially the same (all around 13.5 cm).As can be seen from Equation (1), the increase in

ρ_s will reduce the Shields number, thus weakening the shear action of the sediment by the ocean current, which explains the extension of the stability time of the upstream scouring hole. At the same time, with the increase in the depth of scouring hole at the wake position, its shear velocity will decreases. Therefore, under a larger

ρ_s value, the development speed of scouring hole at the wake position will decrease significantly with time. Possibly for the same reason,

ρ_s can affect the development rate of downstream scouring hole.

4.2.3. Ocean Current Velocity

The ocean current velocity v is set as 0.35 m/s, 0.40 m/s, 0.45 m/s, 0.50 m/s, 0.55 m/s, and 0.60 m/s. Figure 9 presents the variation in scouring terrain with time for each v.

Figure 9. Influence of ocean current velocity v on local scouring around semi-exposed submarine cable: (a) v = 0.35 m/s; (b) v = 0.40 m/s; (c) v = 0.45 m/s; (d) v = 0.50 m/s; (e) v = 0.55 m/s; and (f) v = 0.60 m/s.

Changes in v affect the depth of the upstream and downstream scouring holes, as well as the development velocity of the wake position and downstream scouring holes.

When v ≤ 0.45 m/s, the upstream scouring hole will reach a temporary stable state within 1 h, at which point the stable depth will be 0.04 m. The stabilization time of the upstream scouring hole is affected by v, which will gradually decrease from 15 h to 3 h with the increase in v. When v > 0.45 m/s, the upstream scouring hole is going to expand continuously. With the increase in v, its average development velocity increases from 6.68 cm/h to 8.66 cm/h, and its terrain changes to deep on the left and to shallow on the right. When the submarine cable is spanning, special attention should be paid to the depth of the scouring hole at the wake position. Throughout whole scouring process, the scouring hole at the wake position continues to develop and does not reach a stable state. With the increase in v, the depth of scouring hole at the wake position will increase from 14 cm to 20 cm, and the average development velocity will increase from 0.91 cm/h to 10.43 cm/h. As v increases, the time required to stabilize the downstream scouring hole is shortened from 1to 2 h to less than 1 h, but the stable depth is remains nearly constant at 13.5 cm.

An increase in v will increase the shear velocity. Therefore, when the depth of the scouring hole increases, the shear velocity in the hole will also increase, which can deepen both the upstream and downstream scouring hole. According to Equation (1), the Shields number is proportional to the square of the shear velocity. The increase in shear velocity significantly intensifies local scouring, which increases the development rate of scouring holes at the wake position and downstream.

4.3. Variation Rule of Spanning Time

In this paper, the spanning time is defined as the time taken for a semi-exposed submarine cable (initial state) to become a spanning submarine cable. Figure 10 illustrates the effect of the above parameters on the spanning time of the semi-exposed submarine cable.

Figure 10. Influence of different parameters on spanning time of the semi-exposed submarine cable: (a) Sediment critical Shields number; (b) Sediment density; and (c) Ocean current velocity.From Figure 10a, the spanning time monotonically increases with the increase in the critical Shields number of sediment. However, the slope of the curve decreases first and then increases, and the inflection point is at

θ_cr = 4.59 × 10

⁻². The relationship between spanning time t and sediment’s critical Shields number

θ_cr can be formulated by a cubic function as shown in Equation (6):

𝑡=−2.98+6.76𝜃𝑐𝑟−1.45𝜃2𝑐𝑟+0.11𝜃3𝑐𝑟.�=−2.98+6.76��−1.45��2+0.11��3.(6)It can be seen from Figure 10b that with the increase in the sediment density, the spanning time increases monotonically and linearly. The relationship between the spanning time t and the sediment’s density

ρ_s can be formulated by the first order function as shown in Equation (7):

𝑡=−41.59+30.54𝜌𝑠.�=−41.59+30.54��.(7)Figure 10c shows that with the increase in the ocean current velocity, the spanning time decreases monotonically. The slope of the curve increases with the increase in the ocean current velocity, so it can be considered that there is saturation of the ocean current velocity effect. The relationship between the spanning time t and the ocean current velocity v can be formulated by the exponential function

𝑡=0.15𝑣−4.38.�=0.15�−4.38.(8)

5. Conclusions

In this paper, a three-dimensional CFD finite element numerical simulation model is established, which is used to research the local scouring process of the semi-exposed submarine cable under the steady-state ocean current. The relationship between shear velocity and scouring terrain is discussed, the influence of sediment critical Shields number, sediment density and ocean current velocity on the local scouring process is analyzed, and the variation rules of the spanning time of the semi-exposed submarine cable is given. The conclusions are as follows:

Under the steady-state ocean currents, scouring holes will be formed at the upstream, wake position and downstream of the semi-exposed submarine cable. The upstream and downstream scouring holes develop faster, which will reach a temporary stable state at about 1 h after the start of the scouring. The scouring hole at the wake position will continue to expand at a slower rate and eventually lead to the spanning of the submarine cable.
There is a close relationship between the distribution of shear velocity and the scouring terrain. As the local scouring process occurs, the location of the maximum shear velocity within the scouring hole shifts and causes the bottom of the hole to move as well.
When the sediment’s critical Shields number and density are significantly large and ocean current velocity is sufficiently low, the duration of the stable state of the upstream scouring hole will be prolonged, and the average development velocity of the scouring holes at the wake position and downstream will be reduced.
The relationship between the spanning time and the critical Shields number θ_cr can be formulated as a cubic function, in which the curve’s inflection point is θ_cr = 4.59 × 10⁻². The relationship between spanning time and sediment density can be formulated as a linear function. The relationship between spanning time and ocean current velocity can be formulated by exponential function.

Based on the conclusions of this paper, even when it is too late to take measures or when the exposed position of the submarine cable cannot be located, the degree of burial depth development still can be predicted. This prediction is important for the operation and maintenance of the submarine cable. However, the study still leaves something to be desired. Only the local scouring process under the steady-state ocean current was studied, which is an extreme condition. In practice, exposed submarine cables are more likely to be scoured by reciprocating ocean currents. In the future, we will investigate the local scouring of submarine cables under the reciprocating ocean current.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.H. and Q.L.; methodology, Q.L., P.Z. and H.T.; software, Q.L.; validation, Q.L., L.C. and W.T.; writing—original draft preparation, Q.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.H. and Q.L.; supervision, Y.H. and L.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the [Smart Grid Joint Fund Key Project between National Natural Science Foundation of China and State Grid Corporation] grant number [U1766220].

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting the reported results cannot be shared at this time, as they have been used in producing more publications on this research.

Acknowledgments

This work is supported by the Smart Grid Joint Fund Key Project of the National Natural Science Foundation of China and State Grid Corporation (Grant No. U1766220).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

Taormina, B.; Bald, J.; Want, A.; Thouzeau, G.; Lejart, M.; Desroy, N.; Carlier, A. A review of potential impacts of submarine power cables on the marine environment: Knowledge gaps, recommendations and future directions. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2018, 96, 380–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Gulski, E.; Anders, G.J.; Jogen, R.A.; Parciak, J.; Siemiński, J.; Piesowicz, E.; Paszkiewicz, S.; Irska, I. Discussion of electrical and thermal aspects of offshore wind farms’ power cables reliability. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2021, 151, 111580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Wang, W.; Yan, X.; Li, S.; Zhang, L.; Ouyang, J.; Ni, X. Failure of submarine cables used in high-voltage power transmission: Characteristics, mechanisms, key issues and prospects. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 2021, 15, 1387–1402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Chen, H.; Chen, Z.; Lu, H.; Wu, C.; Liang, J. Protection method for submarine cable detection and exposed suspension problem in Qiongzhou straits. Telecom Pow. Technol. 2019, 36, 60–61+63. [Google Scholar]
Zhu, J.; Ren, B.; Dong, P.; Chen, W. Vortex-induced vibrations of a free spanning submarine power cable. Ocean Eng. 2023, 272, 113792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sumer, B.M.; Jensen, H.R.; Mao, Y.; Fredsøe, J. Effect of lee-wake on scour below pipelines in current. J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean. Eng. 1988, 114, 599–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Chiew, Y.M. Prediction of maximum scour depth at submarine pipelines. J. Hydraul. Eng. 1991, 117, 452–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Mastbergen, D.R.; Vandenberg, J.H. Breaching in fine sands and the generation of sustained turbidity currents in submarine canyons. Sedimentology 2003, 50, 625–637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Dey, S.; Singh, N.P. Clear-water scour depth below underwater pipelines. J. Hydro-Env. Res. 2007, 1, 157–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Dey, S.; Singh, N.P. Clear-water scour below underwater pipelines under steady flow. J. Hydraul. Eng. 2008, 134, 588–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Liang, D.; Cheng, L. Numerical study of scour around a pipeline bundle. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. Mar. Eng. 2008, 161, 89–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yang, L.; Guo, Y.; Shi, B.; Kuang, C.; Xu, W.; Cao, S. Study of scour around submarine pipeline with a rubber plate or rigid spoiler in wave conditions. J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng. 2012, 138, 484–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Li, Y.; Ong, M.C.; Fuhrman, D.R.; Larsen, B.E. Numerical investigation of wave-plus-current induced scour beneath two submarine pipelines in tandem. Coast. Eng. 2020, 156, 103619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Guan, D.; Hsieh, S.C.; Chiew, Y.M.; Low, Y.M.; Wei, M. Local scour and flow characteristics around pipeline subjected to vortex-induced vibrations. J. Hydraul. Eng. 2020, 146, 04019048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Liu, M.M.; Jin, X.; Wang, L.; Yang, F.; Tang, J. Numerical investigation of local scour around a vibrating pipeline under steady currents. Ocean Eng. 2021, 221, 108546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Huang, J.; Yin, G.; Ong, M.C.; Myrhaug, D.; Jia, X. Numerical investigation of scour beneath pipelines subjected to an oscillatory flow condition. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, 1102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Cui, F.; Du, Y.; Hao, X.; Peng, S.; Bao, Z.; Peng, S. Experimental study on local scour and related mechanical effects at river-crossing underwater oil and gas pipelines. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2021, 2021, 6689212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Li, B.; Ma, H. Scouring mechanism of suspended and partially-buried pipelines under steady flow. Coast. Eng. 2022, 177, 104201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Najafzadeh, M.; Oliveto, G. Scour propagation rates around offshore pipelines exposed to currents by applying data-driven models. Water 2022, 14, 493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Zhu, Y.; Xie, L.; Wong, T.; Su, T. Development of three-dimensional scour below pipelines in regular waves. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ma, H.; Li, B. CFD-CGDEM coupling model for scour process simulation of submarine pipelines. Ocean Eng. 2023, 271, 113789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Hu, K.; Bai, X.; Vaz, M.A. Numerical simulation on the local scour processing and influencing factors of submarine pipeline. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yang, B.; Gao, F.; Wu, Y. Experimental study on local scour of sandy seabed under submarine pipeline in unidirectional currents. Eng. Mech. 2008, 25, 206–210. [Google Scholar]
Cheng, Y.; Wang, X.; Luo, W.; Huang, X.; Lyu, X. Experimental study of local scour around a downstream inclined pile under combined waves and current. Adv. Eng. Sci. 2021, 53, 64–71. [Google Scholar]
Lu, Y.; Zhou, L.; Shen, X. Different turbulence models for simulating a liquid-liquid hydro cyclone. J. Tsinghua Univ. 2001, 41, 105–109. [Google Scholar]
Yun, D.H.; Kim, Y.T. Experimental study on settlement and scour characteristics of artificial reef with different reinforcement type and soil type. Geotext. Geomembr. 2018, 46, 448–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

원문 바로가기

Validity evaluation of popular liquid-vapor phase change models for cryogenic self-pressurization process

극저온 자체 가압 공정을 위한 인기 있는 액체-증기 상 변화 모델의 타당성 평가

액체-증기 상 변화 모델은 밀폐된 용기의 자체 가압 프로세스 시뮬레이션에 매우 큰 영향을 미칩니다. Hertz-Knudsen 관계, 에너지 점프 모델 및 그 파생물과 같은 널리 사용되는 액체-증기 상 변화 모델은 실온 유체를 기반으로 개발되었습니다. 액체-증기 전이를 통한 극저온 시뮬레이션에 널리 적용되었지만 각 모델의 성능은 극저온 조건에서 명시적으로 조사 및 비교되지 않았습니다. 본 연구에서는 171가지 일반적인 액체-증기 상 변화 모델을 통합한 통합 다상 솔버가 제안되었으며, 이를 통해 이러한 모델을 실험 데이터와 직접 비교할 수 있습니다. 증발 및 응축 모델의 예측 정확도와 계산 속도를 평가하기 위해 총 <>개의 자체 가압 시뮬레이션이 수행되었습니다. 압력 예측은 최적화 전략이 서로 다른 모델 계수에 크게 의존하는 것으로 나타났습니다. 에너지 점프 모델은 극저온 자체 가압 시뮬레이션에 적합하지 않은 것으로 나타났습니다. 평균 편차와 CPU 소비량에 따르면 Lee 모델과 Tanasawa 모델은 다른 모델보다 안정적이고 효율적인 것으로 입증되었습니다.

원문 바로가기

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

Volume 181, December 2021, 121879

Author links open overlay panelZhongqi Zuo, Jingyi Wu, Yonghua HuangShow moreAdd to MendeleyShareCite

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121879 Get rights and content

Abstract

Liquid-vapor phase change models vitally influence the simulation of self-pressurization processes in closed containers. Popular liquid-vapor phase change models, such as the Hertz-Knudsen relation, energy jump model, and their derivations were developed based on room-temperature fluids. Although they had widely been applied in cryogenic simulations with liquid-vapor transitions, the performance of each model was not explicitly investigated and compared yet under cryogenic conditions. A unified multi-phase solver incorporating four typical liquid-vapor phase change models has been proposed in the present study, which enables direct comparison among those models against experimental data. A total number of 171 self-pressurization simulations were conducted to evaluate the evaporation and condensation models’ prediction accuracy and calculation speed. It was found that the pressure prediction highly depended on the model coefficients, whose optimization strategies differed from each other. The energy jump model was found inadequate for cryogenic self-pressurization simulations. According to the average deviation and CPU consumption, the Lee model and the Tanasawa model were proven to be more stable and more efficient than the others.

Introduction

The liquid-vapor phase change of cryogenic fluids is widely involved in industrial applications, such as the hydrogen transport vehicles [1], shipborne liquid natural gas (LNG) containers [2] and on-orbit cryogenic propellant tanks [3]. These applications require cryogenic fluids to be stored for weeks to months. Although high-performance insulation measures are adopted, heat inevitably enters the tank via radiation and conduction. The self-pressurization in the tank induced by the heat leakage eventually causes the venting loss of the cryogenic fluids and threatens the safety of the craft in long-term missions. To reduce the boil-off loss and extend the cryogenic storage duration, a more comprehensive understanding of the self-pressurization mechanism is needed.

Due to the difficulties and limitations in implementing cryogenic experiments, numerical modeling is a convenient and powerful way to study the self-pressurization process of cryogenic fluids. However, how the phase change models influence the mass and heat transfer under cryogenic conditions is still unsettled [4]. As concluded by Persad and Ward [5], a seemingly slight variation in the liquid-vapor phase change models can lead to erroneous predictions.

Among the liquid-vapor phase change models, the kinetic theory gas (KTG) based models and the energy jump model are the most popular ones used in recent self-pressurization simulations [6]. The KTG based models, also known as the Hertz-Knudsen relation models, were developed on the concept of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of the gas molecular [7]. The Hertz-Knudsen relation has evolved to several models, including the Schrage model [8], the Tanasawa model [9], the Lee model [10] and the statistical rate theory (SRT) [11], which will be described in Section 2.2. Since the Schrage model and the Lee model are embedded and configured as the default ones in the commercial CFD solvers Flow-3D® and Ansys Fluent® respectively, they have been widely used in self-pressurization simulations for liquid nitrogen [12], [13] and liquid hydrogen [14], [15]. The major drawback of the KTG models lies in the difficulty of selecting model coefficients, which were reported in a considerably wide range spanning three magnitudes even for the same working fluid [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21]. Studies showed that the liquid level, pressure and mass transfer rate are directly influenced by the model coefficients [16], [22], [23], [24], [25]. Wrong coefficients will lead to deviation or even divergence of the results. The energy jump model is also known as the thermal limitation model. It assumes that the evaporation and condensation at the liquid-vapor interface are induced only by heat conduction. The model is widely adopted in lumped node simulations due to its simplicity [6], [26], [27]. To improve the accuracy of mass flux prediction, the energy jump model was modified by including the convection heat transfer [28], [29]. However, the convection correlations are empirical and developed mainly for room-temperature fluids. Whether the correlation itself can be precisely applied in cryogenic simulations still needs further investigation.

Fig. 1 summarizes the cryogenic simulations involving the modeling of evaporation and condensation processes in recent years. The publication has been increasing rapidly. However, the characteristics of each evaporation and condensation model are not explicitly revealed when simulating self-pressurization. A comparative study of the phase change models is highly needed for cryogenic fluids for a better simulation of the self-pressurization processes.

In the present paper, a unified multi-phase solver incorporating four typical liquid-vapor phase change models, namely the Tanasawa model, the Lee model, the energy jump model, and the modified energy jump model has been proposed, which enables direct comparison among different models. The models are used to simulate the pressure and temperature evolutions in an experimental liquid nitrogen tank in normal gravity, which helps to evaluate themselves in the aspects of accuracy, calculation speed and robustness.

Section snippets

Governing equations for the self-pressurization tank

In the present study, both the fluid domain and the solid wall of the tank are modeled and discretized. The heat transportation at the solid boundaries is considered to be irrelevant with the nearby fluid velocity. Consequently, two sets of the solid and the fluid governing equations can be decoupled and solved separately. The pressures in the cryogenic container are usually from 100 kPa to 300 kPa. Under these conditions, the Knudsen number is far smaller than 0.01, and the fluids are

Self-pressurization results and phase change model comparison

This section compares the simulation results by different phase change models. Section 3.1 compares the pressure and temperature outputs from two KTG based models, namely the Lee model and the Tanasawa model. Section 3.2 presents the pressure predictions from the energy transport models, namely the energy jump model and the modified energy jump model, and compares pressure prediction performances between the KTG based models and the energy transport models. Section 3.3 evaluates the four models

Conclusion

A unified vapor-liquid-solid multi-phase numerical solver has been accomplished for the self pressurization simulation in cryogenic containers. Compared to the early fluid-only solver, the temperature prediction in the vicinity of the tank wall improves significantly. Four liquid-vapor phase change models were integrated into the solver, which enables fair and effective comparison for performances between each other. The pressure and temperature prediction accuracies, and the calculation speed

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Zhongqi Zuo: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Validation. Jingyi Wu: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Validation. Yonghua Huang: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing, Validation.

Declaration of Competing Interest

Authors declare that they have no financial and personal relationships with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our work, there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript entitled, “Validity evaluation of popular liquid-vapor phase change models for cryogenic self-pressurization process”.

Acknowledgement

This project is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51936006).

References (40)

D. Mori et al.Recent challenges of hydrogen storage technologies for fuel cell vehiclesInt. J. Hydrogen Energy(2009)
W. Zheng et al.China’s first-phase mars exploration program: Yinghuo-1 orbiterPlanet Space Sci.(2013)
Y. Tang et al.Experimental study on film condensation characteristics at liquid nitrogen temperaturesAppl. Therm. Eng.(2017)
C.R. Kharangate et al.Review of computational studies on boiling and condensationInt. J. Heat Mass Transf.(2017)
I. TanasawaAdvances in condensation heat transfer Advances in Heat Transfer(1991)
S. Zhu et al.Numerical analysis of nitrogen condensation heat transfer enhancement with liquid film fluctuation at cryogenic temperatureInt. J. Heat Mass Transf.(2020)
Z.Q. Zuo et al.Effect of baffles on pressurization and thermal stratification in cryogenic tanks under micro-gravityCryogenics(2018)
Z. Zuo et al.Numerical investigation on full thermodynamic venting process of liquid hydrogen in an on-orbit storage tankInt. J. Hydrogen Energy(2020)
M. Kassemi et al.Validation of two-phase CFD models for propellant tank self-pressurization: crossing fluid types, scales, and gravity levelsCryogenics(2018)
R. Zhou et al.Simulations on effects of rated ullage pressure on the evaporation rate of liquid hydrogen tankInt. J. Heat Mass Transf.(2019)
M. Kassemi et al.Effect of interfacial turbulence and accommodation coefficient on CFD predictions of pressurization and pressure control in cryogenic storage tankCryogenics(2016)
J. Li et al.Simulation of mass and heat transfer in liquid hydrogen tanks during pressurizingChin. J. Aeronaut.(2019)
A.J. Savas et al.Thermal analysis of a cryogenic liquid acquisition device under autogenous and non-condensable pressurization schemesInt. J. Heat Mass Transf.(2014)
C. Ludwig et al.Pressure variations in a cryogenic liquid storage tank subjected to periodic excitationsInt. J. Heat Mass Transf.(2013)
J.J. Shuang et al.Efficiency analysis of depressurization process and pressure control strategies for liquid hydrogen storage system in microgravityInt. J. Hydrogen Energy(2019)
K. Bellur et al.A new experiment for investigating evaporation and condensation of cryogenic propellantsCryogenics(2016)
Z. Liu et al.Thermal physical process in a liquid oxygen tank under different sloshing excitationsInt. Commun. Heat Mass Transf.(2020)
S. Wu et al.Numerical simulation and experiment verification of the static boil-off rate and temperature field for a new independent type B liquefied natural gas ship mock up tankAppl. Therm. Eng.(2020)
J. Zheng et al.Thermodynamic modelling and optimization of self-evaporation vapor cooled shield for liquid hydrogen storage tankEnergy Convers. Manage.(2019)
L. Wang et al.Comparison of three computational models for predicting pressurization characteristics of cryogenic tank during dischargeCryogenics(2015)

There are more references available in the full text version of this article.

Cited by (7)

Theoretical investigation on heat leakage distribution between vapor and liquid in liquid hydrogen tanks2023, International Journal of Hydrogen EnergyShow abstract
A review of cryogenic quasi-steady liquid-vapor phase change: Theories, models, and state-of-the-art applications2023, International Journal of Heat and Mass TransferShow abstract
Progress in physical modelling and numerical simulation of phase transitions in cryogenic pool boiling and cavitation2023, Applied Mathematical ModellingCitation Excerpt :We will not delve into cryogenic evaporation phenomena, that predominantly drive the phase-change in well-insulated storage facilities, and thus are less relevant to spill scenarios. We instead refer the reader to the works of Zuo et al. [31–33]. If the static pressure at any location in a turbomachine drops below a fluid’s saturation pressure, localized evaporation events may occur, followed by rapid collapse of the vapour cavities in a process termed “cavitation” [34].Show abstract
Thermodynamic performance in a liquid oxygen tank during active-pressurization under different gas injection temperatures2023, International Communications in Heat and Mass TransferCitation Excerpt :The volume of fluid method is adopted to predict the tank pressurization performance. The associated governing equations could refer to previous published investigations [33–39,41,45,46]. Subjected to external heat input and gas injection, the phase change occurs at the interface and within the tank.Show abstract
Interfacial mass and energy transport during steady-state evaporation in liquid oxygen storage tanks2022, Applied EnergyCitation Excerpt :However, most of them simply used the Lee model for mass transport as did for regular fluids, and seldom focus on the evaporation itself related to the interfacial temperature distribution or were unable to validate their results against credible experimental data. A recent study proposed an optimized evaporation model for the cryogenic self-pressurization with a thorough comparison between popular phase change models [8], but still lacked of experimental data to validate the results. A series of experiments have been conducted on the heat and mass transport in a thin liquid layer in the vicinity of the liquid–vapor interface of room-temperature fluids [9–14].Show abstract
Thermal destratification of cryogenic liquid storage tanks by continuous bubbling of gases2022, International Journal of Hydrogen EnergyCitation Excerpt :It was concluded that a single injector with a larger diameter configuration showed a higher chance of developing a vertical temperature gradient. Zuo et al. [48] carried out a numerical analysis to investigate the temperature distribution within the LH2 storage tank with a self-pinning spraying bar. They used the SST turbulence model coupled with the 6-DOF model.Show abstract

Figure 11. Sketch of scour mechanism around USAF under random waves.

Scour Characteristics and Equilibrium Scour Depth Prediction around Umbrella Suction Anchor Foundation under Random Waves

by Ruigeng Hu¹,Hongjun Liu²,Hao Leng¹,Peng Yu³ andXiuhai Wang^1,2,*

¹College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266000, China

²Key Lab of Marine Environment and Ecology (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266000, China

³Qingdao Geo-Engineering Survering Institute, Qingdao 266100, China

^*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9(8), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080886

Received: 6 July 2021 / Revised: 8 August 2021 / Accepted: 13 August 2021 / Published: 17 August 2021

(This article belongs to the Section Ocean Engineering)

Download

Abstract

A series of numerical simulation were conducted to study the local scour around umbrella suction anchor foundation (USAF) under random waves. In this study, the validation was carried out firstly to verify the accuracy of the present model. Furthermore, the scour evolution and scour mechanism were analyzed respectively. In addition, two revised models were proposed to predict the equilibrium scour depth S_eq around USAF. At last, a parametric study was carried out to study the effects of the Froude number F_r and Euler number E_u for the S_eq. The results indicate that the present numerical model is accurate and reasonable for depicting the scour morphology under random waves. The revised Raaijmakers’s model shows good agreement with the simulating results of the present study when KC_s,p < 8. The predicting results of the revised stochastic model are the most favorable for n = 10 when KC_rms,a < 4. The higher F_r and E_u both lead to the more intensive horseshoe vortex and larger S_eq.

Keywords:

scour; numerical investigation; random waves; equilibrium scour depth; KC number

1. Introduction

The rapid expansion of cities tends to cause social and economic problems, such as environmental pollution and traffic jam. As a kind of clean energy, offshore wind power has developed rapidly in recent years. The foundation of offshore wind turbine (OWT) supports the upper tower, and suffers the cyclic loading induced by waves, tides and winds, which exerts a vital influence on the OWT system. The types of OWT foundation include the fixed and floating foundation, and the fixed foundation was used usually for nearshore wind turbine. After the construction of fixed foundation, the hydrodynamic field changes in the vicinity of the foundation, leading to the horseshoe vortex formation and streamline compression at the upside and sides of foundation respectively [1,2,3,4]. As a result, the neighboring soil would be carried away by the shear stress induced by vortex, and the scour hole would emerge in the vicinity of foundation. The scour holes increase the cantilever length, and weaken the lateral bearing capacity of foundation [5,6,7,8,9]. Moreover, the natural frequency of OWT system increases with the increase of cantilever length, causing the resonance occurs when the system natural frequency equals the wave or wind frequency [10,11,12]. Given that, an innovative foundation called umbrella suction anchor foundation (USAF) has been designed for nearshore wind power. The previous studies indicated the USAF was characterized by the favorable lateral bearing capacity with the low cost [6,13,14]. The close-up of USAF is shown in Figure 1, and it includes six parts: 1-interal buckets, 2-external skirt, 3-anchor ring, 4-anchor branch, 5-supporting rod, 6-telescopic hook. The detailed description and application method of USAF can be found in reference [13].

Figure 1. The close-up of umbrella suction anchor foundation (USAF).

Numerical and experimental investigations of scour around OWT foundation under steady currents and waves have been extensively studied by many researchers [1,2,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24]. The seabed scour can be classified as two types according to Shields parameter θ, i.e., clear bed scour (θ < θ_cr) or live bed scour (θ > θ_cr). Due to the set of foundation, the adverse hydraulic pressure gradient exists at upstream foundation edges, resulting in the streamline separation between boundary layer flow and seabed. The separating boundary layer ascended at upstream anchor edges and developed into the horseshoe vortex. Then, the horseshoe vortex moved downstream gradually along the periphery of the anchor, and the vortex shed off continually at the lee-side of the anchor, i.e., wake vortex. The core of wake vortex is a negative pressure center, liking a vacuum cleaner. Hence, the soil particles were swirled into the negative pressure core and carried away by wake vortexes. At the same time, the onset of scour at rear side occurred. Finally, the wake vortex became downflow when the turbulence energy could not support the survival of wake vortex. According to Tavouktsoglou et al. [25], the scale of pile wall boundary layer is proportional to 1/ln(R_d) (R_d is pile Reynolds), which means the turbulence intensity induced by the flow-structure interaction would decrease with R_d increases, but the effects of R_d can be neglected only if the flow around the foundation is fully turbulent [26]. According to previous studies [1,15,27,28,29,30,31,32], the scour development around pile foundation under waves was significantly influenced by Shields parameter θ and KC number simultaneously (calculated by Equation (1)). Sand ripples widely existed around pile under waves in the case of live bed scour, and the scour morphology is related with θ and KC. Compared with θ, KC has a greater influence on the scour morphology [21,27,28]. The influence mechanism of KC on the scour around the pile is reflected in two aspects: the horseshoe vortex at upstream and wake vortex shedding at downstream.

KC=UwmTD��=�wm��(1)

where, U_wm is the maximum velocity of the undisturbed wave-induced oscillatory flow at the sea bottom above the wave boundary layer, T is wave period, and D is pile diameter.

There are two prerequisites to satisfy the formation of horseshoe vortex at upstream pile edges: (1) the incoming flow boundary layer with sufficient thickness and (2) the magnitude of upstream adverse pressure gradient making the boundary layer separating [1,15,16,18,20]. The smaller KC results the lower adverse pressure gradient, and the boundary layer cannot separate, herein, there is almost no horseshoe vortex emerging at upside of pile. Sumer et al. [1,15] carried out several sets of wave flume experiments under regular and irregular waves respectively, and the experiment results show that there is no horseshoe vortex when KC is less than 6. While the scale and lifespan of horseshoe vortex increase evidently with the increase of KC when KC is larger than 6. Moreover, the wake vortex contributes to the scour at lee-side of pile. Similar with the case of horseshoe vortex, there is no wake vortex when KC is less than 6. The wake vortex is mainly responsible for scour around pile when KC is greater than 6 and less than O(100), while horseshoe vortex controls scour nearly when KC is greater than O(100).

Sumer et al. [1] found that the equilibrium scour depth was nil around pile when KC was less than 6 under regular waves for live bed scour, while the equilibrium scour depth increased with the increase of KC. Based on that, Sumer proposed an equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (2)). Carreiras et al. [33] revised Sumer’s equation with m = 0.06 for nonlinear waves. Different with the findings of Sumer et al. [1] and Carreiras et al. [33], Corvaro et al. [21] found the scour still occurred for KC ≈ 4, and proposed the revised equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (3)) for KC > 4.

Rudolph and Bos [2] conducted a series of wave flume experiments to investigate the scour depth around monopile under waves only, waves and currents combined respectively, indicting KC was one of key parameters in influencing equilibrium scour depth, and proposed the equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (4)) for low KC (1 < KC < 10). Through analyzing the extensive data from published literatures, Raaijmakers and Rudolph [34] developed the equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (5)) for low KC, which was suitable for waves only, waves and currents combined. Khalfin [35] carried out several sets of wave flume experiments to study scour development around monopile, and proposed the equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (6)) for low KC (0.1 < KC < 3.5). Different with above equations, the Khalfin’s equation considers the Shields parameter θ and KC number simultaneously in predicting equilibrium scour depth. The flow reversal occurred under through in one wave period, so sand particles would be carried away from lee-side of pile to upside, resulting in sand particles backfilled into the upstream scour hole [20,29]. Considering the backfilling effects, Zanke et al. [36] proposed the equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (7)) around pile by theoretical analysis, and the equation is suitable for the whole range of KC number under regular waves and currents combined.

S/D=1.3(1−exp([−m(KC−6)])�/�=1.3(1−exp(−�(��−6))(2)

where, m = 0.03 for linear waves.

S/D=1.3(1−exp([−0.02(KC−4)])�/�=1.3(1−exp(−0.02(��−4))(3)

S/D=1.3γKwaveKhw�/�=1.3��wave�ℎw(4)

where, γ is safety factor, depending on design process, typically γ = 1.5, K_wave is correction factor considering wave action, K_hw is correction factor considering water depth.

S/D=1.5[tanh(hwD)]KwaveKhw�/�=1.5tanh(ℎw�)�wave�ℎw(5)

where, h_w is water depth.

S/D=0.0753(θθcr−−−√−0.5)0.69KC0.68�/�=0.0753(��cr−0.5)0.69��0.68(6)

where, θ is shields parameter, θ_cr is critical shields parameter.

S/D=2.5(1−0.5u/uc)xrelxrel=xeff/(1+xeff)xeff=0.03(1−0.35ucr/u)(KC−6)⎫⎭⎬⎪⎪�/�=2.5(1−0.5�/��)��=��/(1+��)��=0.03(1−0.35�cr/�)(��−6)(7)

where, u is near-bed orbital velocity amplitude, u_c is critical velocity corresponding the onset of sediment motion.

S/D=1.3{1−exp[−0.03(KC2lnn+36)1/2−6]}�/�=1.31−exp−0.03(��2ln�+36)1/2−6(8)

where, n is the 1/n’th highest wave for random waves

For predicting equilibrium scour depth under irregular waves, i.e., random waves, Sumer and Fredsøe [16] found it’s suitable to take Equation (2) to predict equilibrium scour depth around pile under random waves with the root-mean-square (RMS) value of near-bed orbital velocity amplitude U_m and peak wave period T_P to calculate KC. Khalfin [35] recommended the RMS wave height H_rms and peak wave period T_P were used to calculate KC for Equation (6). References [37,38,39,40] developed a series of stochastic theoretical models to predict equilibrium scour depth around pile under random waves, nonlinear random waves plus currents respectively. The stochastic approach thought the 1/n’th highest wave were responsible for scour in vicinity of pile under random waves, and the KC was calculated in Equation (8) with U_m and mean zero-crossing wave period T_z. The results calculated by Equation (8) agree well with experimental values of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] if the 1/10′th highest wave was used. To author’s knowledge, the stochastic approach proposed by Myrhaug and Rue [37] is the only theoretical model to predict equilibrium scour depth around pile under random waves for the whole range of KC number in published documents. Other methods of predicting scour depth under random waves are mainly originated from the equation for regular waves-only, waves and currents combined, which are limited to the large KC number, such as KC > 6 for Equation (2) and KC > 4 for Equation (3) respectively. However, situations with relatively low KC number (KC < 4) often occur in reality, for example, monopile or suction anchor for OWT foundations in ocean environment. Moreover, local scour around OWT foundations under random waves has not yet been investigated fully. Therefore, further study are still needed in the aspect of scour around OWT foundations with low KC number under random waves. Given that, this study presents the scour sediment model around umbrella suction anchor foundation (USAF) under random waves. In this study, a comparison of equilibrium scour depth around USAF between this present numerical models and the previous theoretical models and experimental results was presented firstly. Then, this study gave a comprehensive analysis for the scour mechanisms around USAF. After that, two revised models were proposed according to the model of Raaijmakers and Rudolph [34] and the stochastic model developed by Myrhaug and Rue [37] respectively to predict the equilibrium scour depth. Finally, a parametric study was conducted to study the effects of the Froude number (F_r) and Euler number (E_u) to equilibrium scour depth respectively.

2. Numerical Method

2.1. Governing Equations of Flow

The following equations adopted in present model are already available in Flow 3D software. The authors used these theoretical equations to simulate scour in random waves without modification. The incompressible viscous fluid motion satisfies the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation, so the present numerical model solves RANS equations:

∂u∂t+1VF(uAx∂u∂x+vAy∂u∂y+wAz∂u∂z)=−1ρf∂p∂x+Gx+fx∂�∂�+1��(��∂�∂�+��∂�∂�+��∂�∂�)=−1�f∂�∂�+��+��(9)

∂v∂t+1VF(uAx∂v∂x+vAy∂v∂y+wAz∂v∂z)=−1ρf∂p∂y+Gy+fy∂�∂�+1��(��∂�∂�+��∂�∂�+��∂�∂�)=−1�f∂�∂�+��+��(10)

∂w∂t+1VF(uAx∂w∂x+vAy∂w∂y+wAz∂w∂z)=−1ρf∂p∂z+Gz+fz∂�∂�+1��(��∂�∂�+��∂�∂�+��∂�∂�)=−1�f∂�∂�+��+��(11)

where, V_F is the volume fraction; u, v, and w are the velocity components in x, y, z direction respectively with Cartesian coordinates; A_i is the area fraction; ρ_f is the fluid density, f_i is the viscous fluid acceleration, G_i is the fluid body acceleration (i = x, y, z).

2.2. Turbulent Model

The turbulence closure is available by the turbulent model, such as one-equation, the one-equation k-ε model, the standard k-ε model, RNG k-ε turbulent model and large eddy simulation (LES) model. The LES model requires very fine mesh grid, so the computational time is large, which hinders the LES model application in engineering. The RNG k-ε model can reduce computational time greatly with high accuracy in the near-wall region. Furthermore, the RNG k-ε model computes the maximum turbulent mixing length dynamically in simulating sediment scour model. Therefore, the RNG k-ε model was adopted to study the scour around anchor under random waves [41,42].

∂kT∂T+1VF(uAx∂kT∂x+vAy∂kT∂y+wAz∂kT∂z)=PT+GT+DiffkT−εkT∂��∂�+1��(��∂��∂�+��∂��∂�+��∂��∂�)=��+��+��−��(12)

∂εT∂T+1VF(uAx∂εT∂x+vAy∂εT∂y+wAz∂εT∂z)=CDIS1εTkT(PT+CDIS3GT)+Diffε−CDIS2ε2TkT∂��∂�+1��(��∂��∂�+��∂��∂�+��∂��∂�)=��1��(��+��3��)+��−��2��2��(13)

where, k_T is specific kinetic energy involved with turbulent velocity, G_T is the turbulent energy generated by buoyancy; ε_T is the turbulent energy dissipating rate, P_T is the turbulent energy, Diff_ε and Diff_kT are diffusion terms associated with V_F, A_i; CDIS1, CDIS2 and CDIS3 are dimensionless parameters, and CDIS1, CDIS3 have default values of 1.42, 0.2 respectively. CDIS2 can be obtained from P_T and k_T.

2.3. Sediment Scour Model

The sand particles may suffer four processes under waves, i.e., entrainment, bed load transport, suspended load transport, and deposition, so the sediment scour model should depict the above processes efficiently. In present numerical simulation, the sediment scour model includes the following aspects:

2.3.1. Entrainment and Deposition

The combination of entrainment and deposition determines the net scour rate of seabed in present sediment scour model. The entrainment lift velocity of sand particles was calculated as [43]:

ulift,i=αinsd0.3∗(θ−θcr)1.5∥g∥di(ρi−ρf)ρf−−−−−−−−−−−−√�lift,i=��*0.3(�−�cr)1.5��(��−�f)�f(14)

where, α_i is the entrainment parameter, n_s is the outward point perpendicular to the seabed, d_* is the dimensionless diameter of sand particles, which was calculated by Equation (15), θ_cr is the critical Shields parameter, g is the gravity acceleration, d_i is the diameter of sand particles, ρ_i is the density of seabed species.

d∗=di(∥g∥ρf(ρi−ρf)μ2f)1/3�*=��(��f(��−�f)�f2)1/3(15)

where μ_f is the fluid dynamic viscosity.

In Equation (14), the entrainment parameter α_i confirms the rate at which sediment erodes when the given shear stress is larger than the critical shear stress, and the recommended value 0.018 was adopted according to the experimental data of Mastbergen and Von den Berg [43]. n_s is the outward pointing normal to the seabed interface, and n_s = (0,0,1) according to the Cartesian coordinates used in present numerical model.

The shields parameter was obtained from the following equation:

θ=U2f,m(ρi/ρf−1)gd50�=�f,m2(��/�f−1)��50(16)

where, U_f,m is the maximum value of the near-bed friction velocity; d₅₀ is the median diameter of sand particles. The detailed calculation procedure of θ was available in Soulsby [44].

The critical shields parameter θ_cr was obtained from the Equation (17) [44]

θcr=0.31+1.2d∗+0.055[1−exp(−0.02d∗)]�cr=0.31+1.2�*+0.0551−exp(−0.02�*)(17)

The sand particles begin to deposit on seabed when the turbulence energy weaken and cann’t support the particles suspending. The setting velocity of the particles was calculated from the following equation [44]:

usettling,i=νfdi[(10.362+1.049d3∗)0.5−10.36]�settling,�=�f��(10.362+1.049�*3)0.5−10.36(18)

where ν_f is the fluid kinematic viscosity.

2.3.2. Bed Load Transport

This is called bed load transport when the sand particles roll or bounce over the seabed and always have contact with seabed. The bed load transport velocity was computed by [45]:

ubedload,i=qb,iδicb,ifb�bedload,�=�b,��b,��b(19)

where, q_b,i is the bed load transport rate, which was obtained from Equation (20), δ_i is the bed load thickness, which was calculated by Equation (21), c_b,i is the volume fraction of sand i in the multiple species, f_b is the critical packing fraction of the seabed.

qb,i=8[∥g∥(ρi−ρfρf)d3i]1/2�b,�=8�(��−�f�f)��31/2(20)

δi=0.3d0.7∗(θθcr−1)0.5di��=0.3�*0.7(��cr−1)0.5��(21)

2.3.3. Suspended Load Transport

Through the following transport equation, the suspended sediment concentration could be acquired.

∂Cs,i∂t+∇(us,iCs,i)=∇∇(DfCs,i)∂�s,�∂�+∇(�s,��s,�)=∇∇(�f�s,�)(22)

where, C_s,i is the suspended sand particles mass concentration of sand i in the multiple species, u_s,i is the sand particles velocity of sand i, D_f is the diffusivity.

The velocity of sand i in the multiple species could be obtained from the following equation:

us,i=u¯¯+usettling,ics,i�s,�=�¯+�settling,��s,�(23)

where, u¯�¯ is the velocity of mixed fluid-particles, which can be calculated by the RANS equation with turbulence model, c_s,i is the suspended sand particles volume concentration, which was computed from Equation (24).

cs,i=Cs,iρi�s,�=�s,��(24)

3. Model Setup

The seabed-USAF-wave three-dimensional scour numerical model was built using Flow-3D software. As shown in Figure 2, the model includes sandy seabed, USAF model, sea water, two baffles and porous media. The dimensions of USAF are shown in Table 1. The sandy bed (210 m in length, 30 m in width and 11 m in height) is made up of uniform fine sand with median diameter d₅₀ = 0.041 cm. The USAF model includes upper steel tube with the length of 20 m, which was installed in the middle of seabed. The location of USAF is positioned at 140 m from the upstream inflow boundary and 70 m from the downstream outflow boundary. Two baffles were installed at two ends of seabed. In order to eliminate the wave reflection basically, the porous media was set at the outflow side on the seabed.

Figure 2. (a) The sketch of seabed-USAF-wave three-dimensional model; (b) boundary condation:Wv-wave boundary, S-symmetric boundary, O-outflow boundary; (c) USAF model.

Table 1. Numerical simulating cases.

3.1. Mesh Geometric Dimensions

In the simulation of the scour under the random waves, the model includes the umbrella suction anchor foundation, seabed and fluid. As shown in Figure 3, the model mesh includes global mesh grid and nested mesh grid, and the total number of grids is 1,812,000. The basic procedure for building mesh grid consists of two steps. Step 1: Divide the global mesh using regular hexahedron with size of 0.6 × 0.6. The global mesh area is cubic box, embracing the seabed and whole fluid volume, and the dimensions are 210 m in length, 30 m in width and 32 m in height. The details of determining the grid size can see the following mesh sensitivity section. Step 2: Set nested fine mesh grid in vicinity of the USAF with size of 0.3 × 0.3 so as to shorten the computation cost and improve the calculation accuracy. The encryption range is −15 m to 15 m in x direction, −15 m to 15 m in y direction and 0 m to 32 m in z direction, respectively. In order to accurately capture the free-surface dynamics, such as the fluid-air interface, the volume of fluid (VOF) method was adopted for tracking the free water surface. One specific algorithm called FAVORTM (Fractional Area/Volume Obstacle Representation) was used to define the fractional face areas and fractional volumes of the cells which are open to fluid flow.

Figure 3. The sketch of mesh grid.

3.2. Boundary Conditions

As shown in Figure 2, the initial fluid length is 210 m as long as seabed. A wave boundary was specified at the upstream offshore end. The details of determining the random wave spectrum can see the following wave parameters section. The outflow boundary was set at the downstream onshore end. The symmetry boundary was used at the top and two sides of the model. The symmetric boundaries were the better strategy to improve the computation efficiency and save the calculation cost [46]. At the seabed bottom, the wall boundary was adopted, which means the u = v = w= 0. Besides, the upper steel tube of USAF was set as no-slip condition.

3.3. Wave Parameters

The random waves with JONSWAP wave spectrum were used for all simulations as realistic representation of offshore conditions. The unidirectional JONSWAP frequency spectrum was described as [47]:

S(ω)=αg2ω5exp[−54(ωpω)4]γexp[−(ω−ωp)22σ2ω2p]�(�)=��2�5exp−54(�p�)4�exp−(�−�p)22�2�p2(25)

where, α is wave energy scale parameter, which is calculated by Equation (26), ω is frequency, ω_p is wave spectrum peak frequency, which can be obtained from Equation (27). γ is wave spectrum peak enhancement factor, in this study γ = 3.3. σ is spectral width factor, σ equals 0.07 for ω ≤ ω_p and 0.09 for ω > ω_p respectively.

α=0.0076(gXU2)−0.22�=0.0076(��2)−0.22(26)

ωp=22(gU)(gXU2)−0.33�p=22(��)(��2)−0.33(27)

where, X is fetch length, U is average wind velocity at 10 m height from mean sea level.

In present numerical model, the input key parameters include X and U for wave boundary with JONSWAP wave spectrum. The objective wave height and period are available by different combinations of X and U. In this study, we designed 9 cases with different wave heights, periods and water depths for simulating scour around USAF under random waves (see Table 2). For random waves, the wave steepness ε and Ursell number U_r were acquired form Equations (28) and (29) respectively

ε=2πgHsT2a�=2��s�a2(28)

Ur=Hsk2h3w�r=�s�2ℎw3(29)

where, H_s is significant wave height, T_a is average wave period, k is wave number, h_w is water depth. The Shield parameter θ satisfies θ _> θ_cr for all simulations in current study, indicating the live bed scour prevails.

Table 2. Numerical simulating cases.

3.4. Mesh Sensitivity

In this section, a mesh sensitivity analysis was conducted to investigate the influence of mesh grid size to results and make sure the calculation is mesh size independent and converged. Three mesh grid size were chosen: Mesh 1—global mesh grid size of 0.75 × 0.75, nested fine mesh grid size of 0.4 × 0.4, and total number of grids 1,724,000, Mesh 2—global mesh grid size of 0.6 × 0.6, nested fine mesh grid size of 0.3 × 0.3, and total number of grids 1,812,000, Mesh 3—global mesh grid size of 0.4 × 0.4, nested fine mesh grid size of 0.2 × 0.2, and total number of grids 1,932,000. The near-bed shear velocity U_* is an important factor for influencing scour process [1,15], so U_* at the position of (4,0,11.12) was evaluated under three mesh sizes. As the Figure 4 shown, the maximum error of shear velocity ∆U_*1,2 is about 39.8% between the mesh 1 and mesh 2, and 4.8% between the mesh 2 and mesh 3. According to the mesh sensitivity criterion adopted by Pang et al. [48], it’s reasonable to think the results are mesh size independent and converged with mesh 2. Additionally, the present model was built according to prototype size, and the mesh size used in present model is larger than the mesh size adopted by Higueira et al. [49] and Corvaro et al. [50]. If we choose the smallest cell size, it will take too much time. For example, the simulation with Mesh3 required about 260 h by using a computer with Intel Xeon Scalable Gold 4214 CPU @24 Cores, 2.2 GHz and 64.00 GB RAM. Therefore, in this case, considering calculation accuracy and computation efficiency, the mesh 2 was chosen for all the simulation in this study.

Figure 4. Comparison of near-bed shear velocity U_* with different mesh grid size.

The nested mesh block was adopted for seabed in vicinity of the USAF, which was overlapped with the global mesh block. When two mesh blocks overlap each other, the governing equations are by default solved on the mesh block with smaller average cell size (i.e., higher grid resolution). It is should be noted that the Flow 3D software used the moving mesh captures the scour evolution and automatically adjusts the time step size to be as large as possible without exceeding any of the stability limits, affecting accuracy, or unduly increasing the effort required to enforce the continuity condition [51].

3.5. Model Validation

In order to verify the reliability of the present model, the results of present study were compared with the experimental data of Khosronejad et al. [52]. The experiment was conducted in an open channel with a slender vertical pile under unidirectional currents. The comparison of scour development between the present results and the experimental results is shown in Figure 5. The Figure 5 reveals that the present results agree well with the experimental data of Khosronejad et al. [52]. In the first stage, the scour depth increases rapidly. After that, the scour depth achieves a maximum value gradually. The equilibrium scour depth calculated by the present model is basically corresponding with the experimental results of Khosronejad et al. [52], although scour depth in the present model is slightly larger than the experimental results at initial stage.

Figure 5. Comparison of time evolution of scour between the present study and Khosronejad et al. [52], Petersen et al. [17].

Secondly, another comparison was further conducted between the results of present study and the experimental data of Petersen et al. [17]. The experiment was carried out in a flume with a circular vertical pile in combined waves and current. Figure 4 shows a comparison of time evolution of scour depth between the simulating and the experimental results. As Figure 5 indicates, the scour depth in this study has good overall agreement with the experimental results proposed in Petersen et al. [17]. The equilibrium scour depth calculated by the present model is 0.399 m, which equals to the experimental value basically. Overall, the above verifications prove the present model is accurate and capable in dealing with sediment scour under waves.

In addition, in order to calibrate and validate the present model for hydrodynamic parameters, the comparison of water surface elevation was carried out with laboratory experiments conducted by Stahlmann [53] for wave gauge No. 3. The Figure 6 depicts the surface wave profiles between experiments and numerical model results. The comparison indicates that there is a good agreement between the model results and experimental values, especially the locations of wave crest and trough. Comparison of the surface elevation instructs the present model has an acceptable relative error, and the model is a calibrated in terms of the hydrodynamic parameters.

Figure 6. Comparison of surface elevation between the present study and Stahlmann [53].

Finally, another comparison was conducted for equilibrium scour depth or maximum scour depth under random waves with the experimental data of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Schendel et al. [22]. The Figure 7 shows the comparison between the numerical results and experimental data of Run01, Run05, Run21 and Run22 in Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and test A05 and A09 in Schendel et al. [22]. As shown in Figure 7, the equilibrium scour depth or maximum scour depth distributed within the ±30 error lines basically, meaning the reliability and accuracy of present model for predicting equilibrium scour depth around foundation in random waves. However, compared with the experimental values, the present model overestimated the equilibrium scour depth generally. Given that, a calibration for scour depth was carried out by multiplying the mean reduced coefficient 0.85 in following section.

Figure 7. Comparison of equilibrium (or maximum) scour depth between the present study and Sumer and Fredsøe [16], Schendel et al. [22].

Through the various examination for hydrodynamic and morphology parameters, it can be concluded that the present model is a validated and calibrated model for scour under random waves. Thus, the present numerical model would be utilized for scour simulation around foundation under random waves.

4. Numerical Results and Discussions

4.1. Scour Evolution

Figure 8 displays the scour evolution for case 1–9. As shown in Figure 8a, the scour depth increased rapidly at the initial stage, and then slowed down at the transition stage, which attributes to the backfilling occurred in scour holes under live bed scour condition, resulting in the net scour decreasing. Finally, the scour reached the equilibrium state when the amount of sediment backfilling equaled to that of scouring in the scour holes, i.e., the net scour transport rate was nil. Sumer and Fredsøe [16] proposed the following formula for the scour development under waves

St=Seq(1−exp(−t/Tc))�t=�eq(1−exp(−�/�c))(30)

where T_c is time scale of scour process.

Figure 8. Time evolution of scour for case 1–9: (a) Case 1–5; (b) Case 6–9.

The computing time is 3600 s and the scour development curves in Figure 8 kept fluctuating, meaning it’s still not in equilibrium scour stage in these cases. According to Sumer and Fredsøe [16], the equilibrium scour depth can be acquired by fitting the data with Equation (30). From Figure 8, it can be seen that the scour evolution obtained from Equation (30) is consistent with the present study basically at initial stage, but the scour depth predicted by Equation (30) developed slightly faster than the simulating results and the Equation (30) overestimated the scour depth to some extent. Overall, the whole tendency of the results calculated by Equation (30) agrees well with the simulating results of the present study, which means the Equation (30) is applicable to depict the scour evolution around USAF under random waves.

4.2. Scour Mechanism under Random Waves

The scour morphology and scour evolution around USAF are similar under random waves in case 1~9. Taking case 7 as an example, the scour morphology is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Scour morphology under different times for case 7.

From Figure 9, at the initial stage (t < 1200 s), the scour occurred at upstream foundation edges between neighboring anchor branches. The maximum scour depth appeared at the lee-side of the USAF. Correspondingly, the sediments deposited at the periphery of the USAF, and the location of the maximum accretion depth was positioned at an angle of about 45° symmetrically with respect to the wave propagating direction in the lee-side of the USAF. After that, when t > 2400 s, the location of the maximum scour depth shifted to the upside of the USAF at an angle of about 45° with respect to the wave propagating direction.

According to previous studies [1,15,16,19,30,31], the horseshoe vortex, streamline compression and wake vortex shedding were responsible for scour around foundation. The Figure 10 displays the distribution of flow velocity in vicinity of foundation, which reflects the evolving processes of horseshoe vertex.

Figure 10. Velocity profile around USAF: (a) Flow runup and down stream at upstream anchor edges; (b) Horseshoe vortex at upstream anchor edges; (c) Flow reversal during wave through stage at lee side.

As shown in Figure 10, the inflow tripped to the upstream edges of the USAF and it was blocked by the upper tube of USAF. Then, the downflow formed the horizontal axis clockwise vortex and rolled on the seabed bypassing the tube, that is, the horseshoe vortex (Figure 11). The Figure 12 displays the turbulence intensity around the tube on the seabed. From Figure 12, it can be seen that the turbulence intensity was high-intensity with respect to the region of horseshoe vortex. This phenomenon occurred because of drastic water flow momentum exchanging in the horseshoe vortex. As a result, it created the prominent shear stress on the seabed, causing the local scour at the upstream edges of USAF. Besides, the horseshoe vortex moved downstream gradually along the periphery of the tube and the wake vortex shed off continually at the lee-side of the USAF, i.e., wake vortex.

Figure 11. Sketch of scour mechanism around USAF under random waves.

Figure 12. Turbulence intensity: (a) Turbulence intensity of horseshoe vortex; (b) Turbulence intensity of wake vortex; (c) Turbulence intensity of accretion area.

The core of wake vortex is a negative pressure center, liking a vacuum cleaner [11,42]. Hence, the soil particles were swirled into the negative pressure core and carried away by wake vortex. At the same time, the onset of scour at rear side occurred. Finally, the wake vortex became downflow at the downside of USAF. As is shown in Figure 12, the turbulence intensity was low where the downflow occurred at lee-side, which means the turbulence energy may not be able to support the survival of wake vortex, leading to accretion happening. As mentioned in previous section, the formation of horseshoe vortex was dependent with adverse pressure gradient at upside of foundation. As shown in Figure 13, the evaluated range of pressure distribution is −15 m to 15 m in x direction. The t = 450 s and t = 1800 s indicate that the wave crest and trough arrived at the upside and lee-side of the foundation respectively, and the t = 350 s was neither the wave crest nor trough. The adverse gradient pressure reached the maximum value at t = 450 s corresponding to the wave crest phase. In this case, it’s helpful for the wave boundary separating fully from seabed, which leads to the formation of horseshoe vortex with high turbulence intensity. Therefore, the horseshoe vortex is responsible for the local scour between neighboring anchor branches at upside of USAF. What’s more, due to the combination of the horseshoe vortex and streamline compression, the maximum scour depth occurred at the upside of the USAF with an angle of about 45° corresponding to the wave propagating direction. This is consistent with the findings of Pang et al. [48] and Sumer et al. [1,15] in case of regular waves. At the wave trough phase (t = 1800 s), the pressure gradient became positive at upstream USAF edges, which hindered the separating of wave boundary from seabed. In the meantime, the flow reversal occurred (Figure 10) and the adverse gradient pressure appeared at downstream USAF edges, but the magnitude of adverse gradient pressure at lee-side was lower than the upstream gradient pressure under wave crest. In this way, the intensity of horseshoe vortex behind the USAF under wave trough was low, which explains the difference of scour depth at upstream and downstream, i.e., the scour asymmetry. In other words, the scour asymmetry at upside and downside of USAF was attributed to wave asymmetry for random waves, and the phenomenon became more evident for nonlinear waves [21]. Briefly speaking, the vortex system at wave crest phase was mainly related to the scour process around USAF under random waves.

Figure 13. Pressure distribution around USAF.

4.3. Equilibrium Scour Depth

The KC number is a key parameter for horseshoe vortex emerging and evolving under waves. According to Equation (1), when pile diameter D is fixed, the KC depends on the maximum near-bed velocity U_wm and wave period T. For random waves, the U_wm can be denoted by the root-mean-square (RMS) value of near-bed velocity amplitude U_wm,rms or the significant value of near-bed velocity amplitude U_wm,s. The U_wm,rms and U_wm,s for all simulating cases of the present study are listed in Table 3 and Table 4. The T can be denoted by the mean up zero-crossing wave period T_a, peak wave period T_p, significant wave period T_s, the maximum wave period T_m, 1/10′th highest wave period T_{n = 1/10} and 1/5′th highest wave period T_{n = 1/5} for random waves, so the different combinations of U_wm and T will acquire different KC. The Table 3 and Table 4 list 12 types of KC, for example, the KC_rms,s was calculated by U_wm,rms and T_s. Sumer and Fredsøe [16] conducted a series of wave flume experiments to investigate the scour depth around monopile under random waves, and found the equilibrium scour depth predicting equation (Equation (2)) for regular waves was applicable for random waves with KC_rms,p. It should be noted that the Equation (2) is only suitable for KC > 6 under regular waves or KC_rms,p > 6 under random waves.

Table 3. U_wm,rms and KC for case 1~9.

Table 4. U_wm,s and KC for case 1~9.

Raaijmakers and Rudolph [34] proposed the equilibrium scour depth predicting model (Equation (5)) around pile under waves, which is suitable for low KC. The format of Equation (5) is similar with the formula proposed by Breusers [54], which can predict the equilibrium scour depth around pile at different scour stages. In order to verify the applicability of Raaijmakers’s model for predicting the equilibrium scour depth around USAF under random waves, a validation of the equilibrium scour depth S_eq between the present study and Raaijmakers’s equation was conducted. The position where the scour depth S_eq was evaluated is the location of the maximum scour depth, and it was depicted in Figure 14. The Figure 15 displays the comparison of S_eq with different KC between the present study and Raaijmakers’s model.

Figure 14. Sketch of the position where the S_eq was evaluated.

Figure 15. Comparison of the equilibrium scour depth between the present model and the model of Raaijmakers and Rudolph [34]: (a) KC_rms,s, KC_rms,a; (b) KC_rms,p, KC_rms,m; (c) KC_{rms,n = 1/10}, KC_{rms,n = 1/5}; (d) KC_s,s, KC_s,a; (e) KC_s,p, KC_s,m; (f) KC_{s,n = 1/10}, KC_{s,n = 1/5}.

As shown in Figure 15, there is an error in predicting S_eq between the present study and Raaijmakers’s model, and Raaijmakers’s model underestimates the results generally. Although the error exists, the varying trend of S_eq with KC obtained from Raaijmakers’s model is consistent with the present study basically. What’s more, the error is minimum and the Raaijmakers’s model is of relatively high accuracy for predicting scour around USAF under random waves by using KC_s,p. Based on this, a further revision was made to eliminate the error as much as possible, i.e., add the deviation value ∆S/D in the Raaijmakers’s model. The revised equilibrium scour depth predicting equation based on Raaijmakers’s model can be written as

S′eq/D=1.95[tanh(hD)](1−exp(−0.012KCs,p))+ΔS/D�eq′/�=1.95tanh(ℎ�)(1−exp(−0.012��s,p))+∆�/�(31)

As the Figure 16 shown, through trial-calculation, when ∆S/D = 0.05, the results calculated by Equation (31) show good agreement with the simulating results of the present study. The maximum error is about 18.2% and the engineering requirements have been met basically. In order to further verify the accuracy of the revised model for large KC (KC_s,p > 4) under random waves, a validation between the revised model and the previous experimental results [21]. The experiment was conducted in a flume (50 m in length, 1.0 m in width and 1.3 m in height) with a slender vertical pile (D = 0.1 m) under random waves. The seabed is composed of 0.13 m deep layer of sand with d₅₀ = 0.6 mm and the water depth is 0.5 m for all tests. The significant wave height is 0.12~0.21 m and the KC_s,p is 5.52~11.38. The comparison between the predicting results by Equation (31) and the experimental results of Corvaro et al. [21] is shown in Figure 17. From Figure 17, the experimental data evenly distributes around the predicted results and the prediction accuracy is favorable when KC_s,p < 8. However, the gap between the predicting results and experimental data becomes large and the Equation (31) overestimates the equilibrium scour depth to some extent when KC_s,p > 8.

Figure 16. Comparison of S_eq between the simulating results and the predicting values by Equation (31).

Figure 17. Comparison of S_eq/D between the Experimental results of Corvaro et al. [21] and the predicting values by Equation (31).

In ocean environment, the waves are composed of a train of sinusoidal waves with different frequencies and amplitudes. The energy of constituent waves with very large and very small frequencies is relatively low, and the energy of waves is mainly concentrated in a certain range of moderate frequencies. Myrhaug and Rue [37] thought the 1/n’th highest wave was responsible for scour and proposed the stochastic model to predict the equilibrium scour depth around pile under random waves for full range of KC. Noteworthy is that the KC was denoted by KC_rms,a in the stochastic model. To verify the application of the stochastic model for predicting scour depth around USAF, a validation between the simulating results of present study and predicting results by the stochastic model with n = 2,3,5,10,20,500 was carried out respectively.

As shown in Figure 18, compared with the simulating results, the stochastic model underestimates the equilibrium scour depth around USAF generally. Although the error exists, the varying trend of S_eq with KC_rms,a obtained from the stochastic model is consistent with the present study basically. What’s more, the gap between the predicting values by stochastic model and the simulating results decreases with the increase of n, but for large n, for example n = 500, the varying trend diverges between the predicting values and simulating results, meaning it’s not feasible only by increasing n in stochastic model to predict the equilibrium scour depth around USAF.

Figure 18. Comparison of S_eq between the simulating results and the predicting values by Equation (8).

The Figure 19 lists the deviation value ∆S_eq/D′ between the predicting values and simulating results with different KC_rms,a and n. Then, fitted the relationship between the ∆S′and n under different KC_rms,a, and the fitting curve can be written by Equation (32). The revised stochastic model (Equation (33)) can be acquired by adding ∆S_eq/D′ to Equation (8).

ΔSeq/D=0.052*exp(−n/6.566)+0.068∆�eq/�=0.052*exp(−�/6.566)+0.068(32)

S′eq¯/D=S′eq/D+0.052*exp(−n/6.566)+0.068�eq′¯/�=�eq′/�+0.052*exp(−�/6.566)+0.068(33)

Figure 19. The fitting line between ∆S′and n.

The comparison between the predicting results by Equation (33) and the simulating results of present study is shown in Figure 20. According to the Figure 20, the varying trend of S_eq with KC_rms,a obtained from the stochastic model is consistent with the present study basically. Compared with predicting results by the stochastic model, the results calculated by Equation (33) is favorable. Moreover, comparison with simulating results indicates that the predicting results are the most favorable for n = 10, which is consistent with the findings of Myrhaug and Rue [37] for equilibrium scour depth predicting around slender pile in case of random waves.

Figure 20. Comparison of S_eq between the simulating results and the predicting values by Equation (33).

In order to further verify the accuracy of the Equation (33) for large KC (KC_rms,a > 4) under random waves, a validation was conducted between the Equation (33) and the previous experimental results of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Corvaro et al. [21]. The details of experiments conducted by Corvaro et al. [21] were described in above section. Sumer and Fredsøe [16] investigated the local scour around pile under random waves. The experiments were conducted in a wave basin with a slender vertical pile (D = 0.032, 0.055 m). The seabed is composed of 0.14 m deep layer of sand with d₅₀ = 0.2 mm and the water depth was maintained at 0.5 m. The JONSWAP wave spectrum was used and the KC_rms,a was 5.29~16.95. The comparison between the predicting results by Equation (33) and the experimental results of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Corvaro et al. [21] are shown in Figure 21. From Figure 21, contrary to the case of low KC_rms,a (KC_rms,a < 4), the error between the predicting values and experimental results increases with decreasing of n for KC_rms,a > 4. Therefore, the predicting results are the most favorable for n = 2 when KC_rms,a > 4.

Figure 21. Comparison of S_eq between the experimental results of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Corvaro et al. [21] and the predicting values by Equation (33).

Noteworthy is that the present model was built according to prototype size, so the errors between the numerical results and experimental data of References [16,21] may be attribute to the scale effects. In laboratory experiments on scouring process, it is typically impossible to ensure a rigorous similarity of all physical parameters between the model and prototype structure, leading to the scale effects in the laboratory experiments. To avoid a cohesive behaviour, the bed material was not scaled geometrically according to model scale. As a consequence, the relatively large-scaled sediments sizes may result in the overestimation of bed load transport and underestimation of suspended load transport compared with field conditions. What’s more, the disproportional scaled sediment presumably lead to the difference of bed roughness between the model and prototype, and thus large influences for wave boundary layer on the seabed and scour process. Besides, according to Corvaro et al. [21] and Schendel et al. [55], the pile Reynolds numbers and Froude numbers both affect the scour depth for the condition of non fully developed turbulent flow in laboratory experiments.

4.4. Parametric Study

4.4.1. Influence of Froude Number

As described above, the set of foundation leads to the adverse pressure gradient appearing at upstream, leading to the wave boundary layer separating from seabed, then horseshoe vortex formatting and the horseshoe vortex are mainly responsible for scour around foundation (see Figure 22). The Froude number F_r is the key parameter to influence the scale and intensity of horseshoe vortex. The F_r under waves can be calculated by the following formula [42]

Fr=UwgD−−−√�r=�w��(34)

where U_w is the mean water particle velocity during 1/4 cycle of wave oscillation, obtained from the following formula. Noteworthy is that the root-mean-square (RMS) value of near-bed velocity amplitude U_wm,rms is used for calculating U_wm.

Uw=1T/4∫0T/4Uwmsin(t/T)dt=2πUwm�w=1�/4∫0�/4�wmsin(�/�)��=2��wm(35)

Figure 22. Sketch of flow field at upstream USAF edges.

Tavouktsoglou et al. [25] proposed the following formula between F_r and the vertical location of the stagnation y

yh∝Fer�ℎ∝�r�(36)

where e is constant.

The Figure 23 displays the relationship between S_eq/D and F_r of the present study. In order to compare with the simulating results, the experimental data of Corvaro et al. [21] was also depicted in Figure 23. As shown in Figure 23, the equilibrium scour depth appears a logarithmic increase as F_r increases and approaches the mathematical asymptotic value, which is also consistent with the experimental results of Corvaro et al. [21]. According to Figure 24, the adverse pressure gradient pressure at upstream USAF edges increases with the increase of F_r, which is benefit for the wave boundary layer separating from seabed, resulting in the high-intensity horseshoe vortex, hence, causing intensive scour around USAF. Based on the previous study of Tavouktsoglou et al. [25] for scour around pile under currents, the high F_r leads to the stagnation point is closer to the mean sea level for shallow water, causing the stronger downflow kinetic energy. As mentioned in previous section, the energy of downflow at upstream makes up the energy of the subsequent horseshoe vortex, so the stronger downflow kinetic energy results in the more intensive horseshoe vortex. Therefore, the higher F_r leads to the more intensive horseshoe vortex by influencing the position of stagnation point y presumably. Qi and Gao [19] carried out a series of flume tests to investigate the scour around pile under regular waves, and proposed the fitting formula between S_eq/D and F_r as following

lg(Seq/D)=Aexp(B/Fr)+Clg(�eq/�)=�exp(�/�r)+�(37)

where A, B and C are constant.

Figure 23. The fitting curve between S_eq/D and F_r.

Figure 24. Sketch of adverse pressure gradient at upstream USAF edges.

Took the Equation (37) to fit the simulating results with A = −0.002, B = 0.686 and C = −0.808, and the results are shown in Figure 23. From Figure 23, the simulating results evenly distribute around the Equation (37) and the varying trend of S_eq/D and F_r in present study is consistent with Equation (37) basically, meaning the Equation (37) is applicable to express the relationship of S_eq/D with F_r around USAF under random waves.

4.4.2. Influence of Euler Number

The Euler number E_u is the influencing factor for the hydrodynamic field around foundation. The E_u under waves can be calculated by the following formula. The E_u can be represented by the Equation (38) for uniform cylinders [25]. The root-mean-square (RMS) value of near-bed velocity amplitude U_m,rms is used for calculating U_m.

Eu=U2mgD�u=�m2��(38)

where U_m is depth-averaged flow velocity.

The Figure 25 displays the relationship between S_eq/D and E_u of the present study. In order to compare with the simulating results, the experimental data of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Corvaro et al. [21] were also plotted in Figure 25. As shown in Figure 25, similar with the varying trend of S_eq/D and F_r, the equilibrium scour depth appears a logarithmic increase as E_u increases and approaches the mathematical asymptotic value, which is also consistent with the experimental results of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Corvaro et al. [21]. According to Figure 24, the adverse pressure gradient pressure at upstream USAF edges increases with the increasing of E_u, which is benefit for the wave boundary layer separating from seabed, inducing the high-intensity horseshoe vortex, hence, causing intensive scour around USAF.

Figure 25. The fitting curve between S_eq/D and E_u.

Therefore, the variation of F_r and E_u reflect the magnitude of adverse pressure gradient pressure at upstream. Given that, the Equation (37) also was used to fit the simulating results with A = 8.875, B = 0.078 and C = −9.601, and the results are shown in Figure 25. From Figure 25, the simulating results evenly distribute around the Equation (37) and the varying trend of S_eq/D and E_u in present study is consistent with Equation (37) basically, meaning the Equation (37) is also applicable to express the relationship of S_eq/D with E_u around USAF under random waves. Additionally, according to the above description of F_r, it can be inferred that the higher F_r and E_u both lead to the more intensive horseshoe vortex by influencing the position of stagnation point y presumably.

5. Conclusions

A series of numerical models were established to investigate the local scour around umbrella suction anchor foundation (USAF) under random waves. The numerical model was validated for hydrodynamic and morphology parameters by comparing with the experimental data of Khosronejad et al. [52], Petersen et al. [17], Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Schendel et al. [22]. Based on the simulating results, the scour evolution and scour mechanisms around USAF under random waves were analyzed respectively. Two revised models were proposed according to the model of Raaijmakers and Rudolph [34] and the stochastic model developed by Myrhaug and Rue [37] to predict the equilibrium scour depth around USAF under random waves. Finally, a parametric study was carried out with the present model to study the effects of the Froude number F_r and Euler number E_u to the equilibrium scour depth around USAF under random waves. The main conclusions can be described as follows.(1)

The packed sediment scour model and the RNG k−ε turbulence model were used to simulate the sand particles transport processes and the flow field around UASF respectively. The scour evolution obtained by the present model agrees well with the experimental results of Khosronejad et al. [52], Petersen et al. [17], Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Schendel et al. [22], which indicates that the present model is accurate and reasonable for depicting the scour morphology around UASF under random waves.(2)

The vortex system at wave crest phase is mainly related to the scour process around USAF under random waves. The maximum scour depth appeared at the lee-side of the USAF at the initial stage (t < 1200 s). Subsequently, when t > 2400 s, the location of the maximum scour depth shifted to the upside of the USAF at an angle of about 45° with respect to the wave propagating direction.(3)

The error is negligible and the Raaijmakers’s model is of relatively high accuracy for predicting scour around USAF under random waves when KC is calculated by KC_s,p. Given that, a further revision model (Equation (31)) was proposed according to Raaijmakers’s model to predict the equilibrium scour depth around USAF under random waves and it shows good agreement with the simulating results of the present study when KC_s,p < 8.(4)

Another further revision model (Equation (33)) was proposed according to the stochastic model established by Myrhaug and Rue [37] to predict the equilibrium scour depth around USAF under random waves, and the predicting results are the most favorable for n = 10 when KC_rms,a < 4. However, contrary to the case of low KC_rms,a, the predicting results are the most favorable for n = 2 when KC_rms,a > 4 by the comparison with experimental results of Sumer and Fredsøe [16] and Corvaro et al. [21].(5)

The same formula (Equation (37)) is applicable to express the relationship of S_eq/D with E_u or F_r, and it can be inferred that the higher F_r and E_u both lead to the more intensive horseshoe vortex and larger S_eq.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.L. (Hongjun Liu); Data curation, R.H. and P.Y.; Formal analysis, X.W. and H.L. (Hao Leng); Funding acquisition, X.W.; Writing—original draft, R.H. and P.Y.; Writing—review & editing, X.W. and H.L. (Hao Leng); The final manuscript has been approved by all the authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant number 202061027) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 41572247).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

Sumer, B.M.; Fredsøe, J.; Christiansen, N. Scour Around Vertical Pile in Waves. J. Waterw. Port. Coast. Ocean Eng. 1992, 118, 15–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Rudolph, D.; Bos, K. Scour around a monopile under combined wave-current conditions and low KC-numbers. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1–3 November 2006; pp. 582–588. [Google Scholar]
Nielsen, A.W.; Liu, X.; Sumer, B.M.; Fredsøe, J. Flow and bed shear stresses in scour protections around a pile in a current. Coast. Eng. 2013, 72, 20–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ahmad, N.; Bihs, H.; Myrhaug, D.; Kamath, A.; Arntsen, Ø.A. Three-dimensional numerical modelling of wave-induced scour around piles in a side-by-side arrangement. Coast. Eng. 2018, 138, 132–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Li, H.; Ong, M.C.; Leira, B.J.; Myrhaug, D. Effects of Soil Profile Variation and Scour on Structural Response of an Offshore Monopile Wind Turbine. J. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. 2018, 140, 042001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Li, H.; Liu, H.; Liu, S. Dynamic analysis of umbrella suction anchor foundation embedded in seabed for offshore wind turbines. Géoméch. Energy Environ. 2017, 10, 12–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Fazeres-Ferradosa, T.; Rosa-Santos, P.; Taveira-Pinto, F.; Vanem, E.; Carvalho, H.; Correia, J.A.F.D.O. Editorial: Advanced research on offshore structures and foundation design: Part 1. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Marit. Eng. 2019, 172, 118–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Chavez, C.E.A.; Stratigaki, V.; Wu, M.; Troch, P.; Schendel, A.; Welzel, M.; Villanueva, R.; Schlurmann, T.; De Vos, L.; Kisacik, D.; et al. Large-Scale Experiments to Improve Monopile Scour Protection Design Adapted to Climate Change—The PROTEUS Project. Energies 2019, 12, 1709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Wu, M.; De Vos, L.; Chavez, C.E.A.; Stratigaki, V.; Fazeres-Ferradosa, T.; Rosa-Santos, P.; Taveira-Pinto, F.; Troch, P. Large Scale Experimental Study of the Scour Protection Damage Around a Monopile Foundation Under Combined Wave and Current Conditions. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2020, 8, 417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sørensen, S.P.H.; Ibsen, L.B. Assessment of foundation design for offshore monopiles unprotected against scour. Ocean Eng. 2013, 63, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Prendergast, L.; Gavin, K.; Doherty, P. An investigation into the effect of scour on the natural frequency of an offshore wind turbine. Ocean Eng. 2015, 101, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Fazeres-Ferradosa, T.; Chambel, J.; Taveira-Pinto, F.; Rosa-Santos, P.; Taveira-Pinto, F.; Giannini, G.; Haerens, P. Scour Protections for Offshore Foundations of Marine Energy Harvesting Technologies: A Review. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, 297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yang, Q.; Yu, P.; Liu, Y.; Liu, H.; Zhang, P.; Wang, Q. Scour characteristics of an offshore umbrella suction anchor foundation under the combined actions of waves and currents. Ocean Eng. 2020, 202, 106701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yu, P.; Hu, R.; Yang, J.; Liu, H. Numerical investigation of local scour around USAF with different hydraulic conditions under currents and waves. Ocean Eng. 2020, 213, 107696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sumer, B.M.; Christiansen, N.; Fredsøe, J. The horseshoe vortex and vortex shedding around a vertical wall-mounted cylinder exposed to waves. J. Fluid Mech. 1997, 332, 41–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sumer, B.M.; Fredsøe, J. Scour around Pile in Combined Waves and Current. J. Hydraul. Eng. 2001, 127, 403–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Petersen, T.U.; Sumer, B.M.; Fredsøe, J. Time scale of scour around a pile in combined waves and current. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Paris, France, 27–31 August 2012. [Google Scholar]
Petersen, T.U.; Sumer, B.M.; Fredsøe, J.; Raaijmakers, T.C.; Schouten, J.-J. Edge scour at scour protections around piles in the marine environment—Laboratory and field investigation. Coast. Eng. 2015, 106, 42–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Qi, W.; Gao, F. Equilibrium scour depth at offshore monopile foundation in combined waves and current. Sci. China Ser. E Technol. Sci. 2014, 57, 1030–1039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Larsen, B.E.; Fuhrman, D.R.; Baykal, C.; Sumer, B.M. Tsunami-induced scour around monopile foundations. Coast. Eng. 2017, 129, 36–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Corvaro, S.; Marini, F.; Mancinelli, A.; Lorenzoni, C.; Brocchini, M. Hydro- and Morpho-dynamics Induced by a Vertical Slender Pile under Regular and Random Waves. J. Waterw. Port. Coast. Ocean Eng. 2018, 144, 04018018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Schendel, A.; Welzel, M.; Schlurmann, T.; Hsu, T.-W. Scour around a monopile induced by directionally spread irregular waves in combination with oblique currents. Coast. Eng. 2020, 161, 103751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Fazeres-Ferradosa, T.; Taveira-Pinto, F.; Romão, X.; Reis, M.; das Neves, L. Reliability assessment of offshore dynamic scour protections using copulas. Wind. Eng. 2018, 43, 506–538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Fazeres-Ferradosa, T.; Welzel, M.; Schendel, A.; Baelus, L.; Santos, P.R.; Pinto, F.T. Extended characterization of damage in rubble mound scour protections. Coast. Eng. 2020, 158, 103671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Tavouktsoglou, N.S.; Harris, J.M.; Simons, R.R.; Whitehouse, R.J.S. Equilibrium Scour-Depth Prediction around Cylindrical Structures. J. Waterw. Port. Coast. Ocean Eng. 2017, 143, 04017017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Ettema, R.; Melville, B.; Barkdoll, B. Scale Effect in Pier-Scour Experiments. J. Hydraul. Eng. 1998, 124, 639–642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Umeda, S. Scour Regime and Scour Depth around a Pile in Waves. J. Coast. Res. Spec. Issue 2011, 64, 845–849. [Google Scholar]
Umeda, S. Scour process around monopiles during various phases of sea storms. J. Coast. Res. 2013, 165, 1599–1604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Baykal, C.; Sumer, B.; Fuhrman, D.R.; Jacobsen, N.; Fredsøe, J. Numerical simulation of scour and backfilling processes around a circular pile in waves. Coast. Eng. 2017, 122, 87–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Miles, J.; Martin, T.; Goddard, L. Current and wave effects around windfarm monopile foundations. Coast. Eng. 2017, 121, 167–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Miozzi, M.; Corvaro, S.; Pereira, F.A.; Brocchini, M. Wave-induced morphodynamics and sediment transport around a slender vertical cylinder. Adv. Water Resour. 2019, 129, 263–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yu, T.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, S.; Shi, Z.; Chen, X.; Xu, Y.; Tang, Y. Experimental study on scour around a composite bucket foundation due to waves and current. Ocean Eng. 2019, 189, 106302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Carreiras, J.; Larroudé, P.; Seabra-Santos, F.; Mory, M. Wave Scour Around Piles. In Proceedings of the Coastal Engineering 2000, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Sydney, Australia, 16–21 July 2000; pp. 1860–1870. [Google Scholar]
Raaijmakers, T.; Rudolph, D. Time-dependent scour development under combined current and waves conditions—Laboratory experiments with online monitoring technique. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Scour and Erosion, Tokyo, Japan, 5–7 November 2008; pp. 152–161. [Google Scholar]
Khalfin, I.S. Modeling and calculation of bed score around large-diameter vertical cylinder under wave action. Water Resour. 2007, 34, 357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Zanke, U.C.; Hsu, T.-W.; Roland, A.; Link, O.; Diab, R. Equilibrium scour depths around piles in noncohesive sediments under currents and waves. Coast. Eng. 2011, 58, 986–991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Myrhaug, D.; Rue, H. Scour below pipelines and around vertical piles in random waves. Coast. Eng. 2003, 48, 227–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Myrhaug, D.; Ong, M.C.; Føien, H.; Gjengedal, C.; Leira, B.J. Scour below pipelines and around vertical piles due to second-order random waves plus a current. Ocean Eng. 2009, 36, 605–616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Myrhaug, D.; Ong, M.C. Random wave-induced onshore scour characteristics around submerged breakwaters using a stochastic method. Ocean Eng. 2010, 37, 1233–1238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ong, M.C.; Myrhaug, D.; Hesten, P. Scour around vertical piles due to long-crested and short-crested nonlinear random waves plus a current. Coast. Eng. 2013, 73, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yakhot, V.; Orszag, S.A. Renormalization group analysis of turbulence. I. Basic theory. J. Sci. Comput. 1986, 1, 3–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yakhot, V.; Smith, L.M. The renormalization group, the e-expansion and derivation of turbulence models. J. Sci. Comput. 1992, 7, 35–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Mastbergen, D.R.; Berg, J.V.D. Breaching in fine sands and the generation of sustained turbidity currents in submarine canyons. Sedimentology 2003, 50, 625–637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Soulsby, R. Dynamics of Marine Sands; Thomas Telford Ltd.: London, UK, 1998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Van Rijn, L.C. Sediment Transport, Part I: Bed Load Transport. J. Hydraul. Eng. 1984, 110, 1431–1456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Zhang, Q.; Zhou, X.-L.; Wang, J.-H. Numerical investigation of local scour around three adjacent piles with different arrangements under current. Ocean Eng. 2017, 142, 625–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Yu, Y.X.; Liu, S.X. Random Wave and Its Applications to Engineering, 4th ed.; Dalian University of Technology Press: Dalian, China, 2011. [Google Scholar]
Pang, A.; Skote, M.; Lim, S.; Gullman-Strand, J.; Morgan, N. A numerical approach for determining equilibrium scour depth around a mono-pile due to steady currents. Appl. Ocean Res. 2016, 57, 114–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Higuera, P.; Lara, J.L.; Losada, I.J. Three-dimensional interaction of waves and porous coastal structures using Open-FOAM®. Part I: Formulation and validation. Coast. Eng. 2014, 83, 243–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Corvaro, S.; Crivellini, A.; Marini, F.; Cimarelli, A.; Capitanelli, L.; Mancinelli, A. Experimental and Numerical Analysis of the Hydrodynamics around a Vertical Cylinder in Waves. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
Flow3D User Manual, version 11.0.3; Flow Science, Inc.: Santa Fe, NM, USA, 2013.
Khosronejad, A.; Kang, S.; Sotiropoulos, F. Experimental and computational investigation of local scour around bridge piers. Adv. Water Resour. 2012, 37, 73–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Stahlmann, A. Experimental and Numerical Modeling of Scour at Foundation Structures for Offshore Wind Turbines. Ph.D. Thesis, Franzius-Institute for Hydraulic, Estuarine and Coastal Engineering, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany, 2013. [Google Scholar]
Breusers, H.N.C.; Nicollet, G.; Shen, H. Local Scour Around Cylindrical Piers. J. Hydraul. Res. 1977, 15, 211–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Schendel, A.; Hildebrandt, A.; Goseberg, N.; Schlurmann, T. Processes and evolution of scour around a monopile induced by tidal currents. Coast. Eng. 2018, 139, 65–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hu, R.; Liu, H.; Leng, H.; Yu, P.; Wang, X. Scour Characteristics and Equilibrium Scour Depth Prediction around Umbrella Suction Anchor Foundation under Random Waves. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, 886. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080886

AMA Style

Hu R, Liu H, Leng H, Yu P, Wang X. Scour Characteristics and Equilibrium Scour Depth Prediction around Umbrella Suction Anchor Foundation under Random Waves. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2021; 9(8):886. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080886Chicago/Turabian Style

Hu, Ruigeng, Hongjun Liu, Hao Leng, Peng Yu, and Xiuhai Wang. 2021. “Scour Characteristics and Equilibrium Scour Depth Prediction around Umbrella Suction Anchor Foundation under Random Waves” Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9, no. 8: 886. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9080886

Find Other Styles

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

For more information on the journal statistics, click here.

Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.

원본 다운로드

Fig. 1 Oscillation of a free surface due to the step reduction of gravity acceleration from kzi ≈ 9.81 to kz ≈ 0

Reorientation of Cryogenic Fluids Upon Step Reduction of Gravity

단계적 중력 감소 시 극저온 유체의 방향 전환

Malte Stief∗, Jens Gerstmann∗∗, and Michael E. Dreyer∗∗∗
ZARM, Center of Applied Space Technology and Microgravity, University of Bremen, Am Fallturm, D-28359 Bremen
Experiments to observe the surface oscillation of cryogenic liquids have been performed with liquid nitrogen inside a 50 mm
diameter right circular cylinder. The surface oscillation is driven by the capillary force that becomes dominant after a sudden
reduction of the gravity acceleration acting on the liquid. The experiments show differences from the speculated behavior and
enables one to observe new features.

Introduction and motivation

최근 몇 년 동안 Bremen의 낙하탑에서 중력의 단계적 감소 시 방향 재지향 거동과 표면 진동을 조사하기 위해 수많은 실험이 수행되었습니다[1]. 이 실험의 원리는 그림 1에 나와 있습니다.

그림 1의 왼쪽에 표시된 것처럼 오른쪽 원형 원통형 용기에 테스트 액체를 레벨 h0까지 채웁니다. 처음에 액체는 정지 상태이며 중앙에서 평평한 인터페이스를 형성합니다.

초기 중력 가속도 kzi ≈ 9.81 [m/s2]와 결과적으로 높은 BOND 수(Bo = ρkziR2/σ)로 인해 실린더의 대칭축에서. 낙하탑에서 실험 캡슐의 방출에 의해 확립된 μ-중력 환경 kz ≈ 0 [m/s2]로의 갑작스러운 전환과 함께 자유 표면은 진동 운동으로 새로운 평형 구성을 찾기 시작합니다(그림의 오른쪽) 1). 이러한 움직임은 그림 1의 중앙에 스케치되어 있습니다.

표면 진동의 구동력은 접착력과 결합된 표면 장력이며, 댐핑은 액체의 점도에 의해 제어됩니다. 위치가 zw인 벽에서 접촉선의 이동은 접촉각 γ에 의해 제어됩니다. 접촉각이 작은 액체용 γ ≈ 0◦

In recent years numerous experiments have been carried out to investigate the reorientation behavior and surface oscillations upon step reduction of gravity at the drop tower in Bremen [1]. The principals of these experiments are shown in figure 1. A right circular cylindrical container is filled up to the level h0 with the test liquid, as shown on the left of figure 1. Initially the liquid is quiescent and forms a flat interface at the center, in the symmetry axis of the cylinder, due to the initial gravity acceleration kzi ≈ 9.81 [m/s2] and the resulting high BOND number (Bo = ρkziR2/σ). With the sudden transition to the µ-gravity environment kz ≈ 0 [m/s2], which is established by the release of the experiment capsular in the drop tower, the free surface is initiated to search its new equilibrium configuration (right side of figure 1) with an oscillatory motion. These movements are sketched in the center of figure 1. The driving force for the surface oscillation is the surface tension in combination with the adhesion force where the damping is controlled by the viscosity of the liquid. The movement of the contact line at the wall, with its position zw, is governed by the contact angle γ. For liquids with small contact angle γ ≈ 0◦

Fig. 2 Experiment picture-series showing the oscillation of the free surface at different times for a 50 mm diameter cylinder.

References

[1] M. Michaelis, Kapillarinduzierte Schwingungen freier Fl¨ussigkeitsoberfl¨achen, Dissertation Universit¨at Bremen, Fortschritt-Berichte
Nr. 454 (VDI Verlag, D¨usseldorf, 2003).

원문보기

Figure 1: Drawing of the experimental set-up, Figure 2: Experimental tank with locations of temperature sensors

실험 및 수치 시뮬레이션에 기반한 극저온 추진제 탱크 가압 분석

Analyses of Cryogenic Propellant Tank Pressurization based upon Experiments and Numerical Simulations
Carina Ludwig? and Michael Dreyer**
*DLR – German Aerospace Center, Space Launcher Systems Analysis (SART),
Institute of Space Systems, 28359 Bremen, Germany, Carina.Ludwig@dlr.de
**ZARM – Center for Applied Space Technology and Microgravity,
University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany

Abstract

본 연구에서는 발사대 적용을 위한 극저온 추진제 탱크의 능동 가압을 분석하였다. 따라서 지상 실험, 수치 시뮬레이션 및 분석 연구를 수행하여 다음과 같은 중요한 결과를 얻었습니다.

필요한 가압 기체 질량을 최소화하기 위해 더 높은 가압 기체 온도가 유리하거나 헬륨을 가압 기체로 적용하는 것이 좋습니다.

Flow-3D를 사용한 가압 가스 질량의 수치 시뮬레이션은 실험 결과와 잘 일치함을 보여줍니다. 가압 중 지배적인 열 전달은 주입된 가압 가스에서 축방향 탱크 벽으로 나타나고 능동 가압 단계 동안 상 변화의 주된 방식은 가압 가스의 유형에 따라 다릅니다.

가압 단계가 끝나면 상당한 압력 강하가 발생합니다. 이 압력 강하의 분석적 결정을 위해 이론적 모델이 제공됩니다.

The active-pressurization of cryogenic propellant tanks for the launcher application was analyzed in this study. Therefore, ground experiments, numerical simulations and analytical studies were performed with the following important results: In order to minimize the required pressurant gas mass, a higher pressurant gas temperature is advantageous or the application of helium as pressurant gas. Numerical simulations of the pressurant gas mass using Flow-3D show good agreement to the experimental results. The dominating heat transfer during pressurization appears from the injected pressurant gas to the axial tank walls and the predominant way of phase change during the active-pressurization phase depends on the type of the pressurant gas. After the end of the pressurization phase, a significant pressure drop occurs. A theoretical model is presented for the analytical determination of this pressure drop.

Figure 3: Non-dimensional (a) tank pressure, (b) liquid temperatures, (c) vapor temperatures, (d) wall and lid temperatures during pressurization and relaxation of the N300h experiment (for details see Table 2). T14 is the pressurant
gas temperature at the diffuser. Pressurization starts at tp,0 (t
∗ = 0.06·10−4
) and ends at tp, f (t
∗ = 0.84·10−4
). Relaxation
takes place until tp,T (t
∗ = 2.79·10−4
) and ∆p is the characteristic pressure drop — Figure 3: Non-dimensional (a) tank pressure, (b) liquid temperatures, (c) vapor temperatures, (d) wall and lid temperatures during pressurization and relaxation of the N300h experiment (for details see Table 2). T14 is the pressurant gas temperature at the diffuser. Pressurization starts at tp,0 (t ∗ = 0.06·10−4 ) and ends at tp, f (t ∗ = 0.84·10−4 ). Relaxation takes place until tp,T (t ∗ = 2.79·10−4 ) and ∆p is the characteristic pressure drop

Figure 5: Nondimensional vapor mass at pressurization start (m
∗
v,0
), pressurant gas mass (m
∗
pg), condensed vapor mass
from pressurization start to pressurization end (m
∗
cond,0,f
) and condensed vapor mass from pressurization end to relaxation end (m
∗
cond, f,T
) for all GN2 (a) and the GHe (b) pressurized experiments with the relating errors. — Figure 5: Nondimensional vapor mass at pressurization start (m ∗ v,0 ), pressurant gas mass (m ∗ pg), condensed vapor mass from pressurization start to pressurization end (m ∗ cond,0,f ) and condensed vapor mass from pressurization end to relaxation end (m ∗ cond, f,T ) for all GN2 (a) and the GHe (b) pressurized experiments with the relating errors.

Figure 6: Schematical propellant tank with vapor and liquid phase, pressurant gas and condensation mass flow as well as the applied control volumes. ., Figure 7: N300h experiment: wall to fluid heat flux at pressurization end (tp, f) over the tank height.

References

[1] M.E. Nein and R.R. Head. Experiences with pressurized discharge of liquid oxygen from large flight vehicle
propellant tanks. In Advances in Cryogenig Engineering, vol. 7, New York, Plenum Press, 244–250.
[2] M.E. Nein and J.F. Thompson. Experimental and analytical studies of cryogenic propellant tank pressurant
requirements: NASA TN D-3177, 1966.
[3] R.J. Stochl, J.E. Maloy, P.A. Masters and R.L. DeWitt. Gaseous-helium requirements for the discharge of liquid
hydrogen from a 1.52-meter- (5-ft-) diameter spherical tank: NASA TN D-5621, 1970.
[4] R.J. Stochl, J.E. Maloy, P.A. Masters and R.L. DeWitt. Gaseous-helium requirements for the discharge of liquid
hydrogen from a 3.96-meter- (13-ft-) diameter spherical tank: NASA TN D-7019, 1970.
[5] R.J. Stochl, P.A. Masters, R.L. DeWitt and J.E. Maloy. Gaseous-hydrogen requirements for the discharge of
liquid hydrogen from a 1.52-meter- (5-ft-) diameter spherical tank: NASA TN D-5336, 1969.
[6] R.J. Stochl, P.A. Masters, R.L. DeWitt and J.E. Maloy. Gaseous-hydrogen requirements for the discharge of
liquid hydrogen from a 3.96-meter- (13-ft-) diameter spherical tank: NASA TN D-5387, 1969.
[7] R.F. Lacovic. Comparison of experimental and calculated helium requirements for pressurization of a Centaur
liquid oxygen tank: NASA TM X-2013, 1970.
[8] N.T. van Dresar and R.J. Stochl. Pressurization and expulsion of a flightweight liquid hydrogen tank: AIAA-93-
1966, 1993.
[9] T.L. Hardy and T.M. Tomsik. Prediction of the ullage gas thermal stratification in a NASP vehicle propellant tank
experimental simulation using Flow-3D: Nasa technical memorandum 103217, 1990.
[10] G.P. Samsal, J.I. Hochstein, M.C. Wendl and T.L. Hardy. Computational modeling of the pressurization process
in a NASP vehicle propellant tank experimental simulation: AIAA 91-2407. AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference
and Exhibit, 1991.
[11] P. Adnani and R.W. Jennings. Pressurization analysis of cryogenic propulsion systems: AIAA 2000-3788. In
36th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit, Huntsville, Alabama, USA, 2000.
[12] C. Ludwig and M. Dreyer. Analyses of cryogenic propellant tank pressurization based upon ground experiments:
AIAA 2012-5199. In AIAA Space 2012 Conference & Exhibit, Pasadena, California, USA, 2012.
[13] Flow Science Inc. Flow-3D User Manual – Version 10.0, 2011.
[14] R.F. Barron. Cryogenic heat transfer, 3. ed., Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, 1999, p. 23
[15] E.W. Lemmon, M.L. Huber and M.O. McLinden. NIST Standard Reference Database 23: Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010.
[16] E.J. Hopfinger and S.P. Das. Mass transfer enhancement by capillary waves at a liquid–vapour interface. Experiments in Fluids, Vol. 46, No.4: 597-605, 2009.
[17] S.P. Das and E.J. Hopfinger. Mass transfer enhancement by gravity waves at a liquid–vapour interface. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 52, No. 5-6: 1400-1411, 2009.
[18] H.D. Baehr and K. Stephan. Wärme- und Stoffübertragung, 6. ed., Springer, Berlin, 2008, p.491, p.302.

원문보기

Figure 14. Defects: (a) Unmelt defects(Scheme NO.4);(b) Pores defects(Scheme NO.1); (c); Spattering defect (Scheme NO.3); (d) Low overlapping rate defects(Scheme NO.5).

Molten pool structure, temperature and velocity
flow in selective laser melting AlCu5MnCdVA alloy

용융 풀 구조, 선택적 온도 및 속도 흐름 레이저 용융 AlCu5MnCdVA 합금

Pan Lu1 , Zhang Cheng-Lin^2,6,Wang Liang³, Liu Tong⁴ and Liu Jiang-lin⁵
¹ Aviation and Materials College, Anhui Technical College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Wuhu Anhui 241000, People’s
Republic of China 2 School of Engineering Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei Anhui 230026, People’s Republic of China 3 Anhui Top Additive Manufacturing Technology Co., Ltd., Wuhu Anhui 241300, People’s Republic of China 4 Anhui Chungu 3D Printing Institute of Intelligent Equipment and Industrial Technology, Anhui 241300, People’s Republic of China 5 School of Mechanical and Transportation Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan Shanxi 030024, People’s Republic of
China 6 Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: ahjdpanlu@126.com, jiao__zg@126.com, ahjdjxx001@126.com,tongliu1988@126.com and liujianglin@tyut.edu.cn

Keywords

SLM, molten pool, AlCu5MnCdVA alloy, heat flow, velocity flow, numerical simulation

Abstract

선택적 레이저 용융(SLM)은 열 전달, 용융, 상전이, 기화 및 물질 전달을 포함하는 복잡한 동적 비평형 프로세스인 금속 적층 제조(MAM)에서 가장 유망한 기술 중 하나가 되었습니다. 용융 풀의 특성(구조, 온도 흐름 및 속도 흐름)은 SLM의 최종 성형 품질에 결정적인 영향을 미칩니다. 이 연구에서는 선택적 레이저 용융 AlCu5MnCdVA 합금의 용융 풀 구조, 온도 흐름 및 속도장을 연구하기 위해 수치 시뮬레이션과 실험을 모두 사용했습니다.

그 결과 용융풀의 구조는 다양한 형태(깊은 오목 구조, 이중 오목 구조, 평면 구조, 돌출 구조 및 이상적인 평면 구조)를 나타냈으며, 용융 풀의 크기는 약 132 μm × 107 μm × 50 μm였습니다. : 용융풀은 초기에는 여러 구동력에 의해 깊이 15μm의 깊은 오목형상이었으나, 성형 후기에는 장력구배에 의해 높이 10μm의 돌출형상이 되었다. 용융 풀 내부의 금속 흐름은 주로 레이저 충격력, 금속 액체 중력, 표면 장력 및 반동 압력에 의해 구동되었습니다.

AlCu5MnCdVA 합금의 경우, 금속 액체 응고 속도가 매우 빠르며(3.5 × 10-4 S), 가열 속도 및 냉각 속도는 각각 6.5 × 107 K S-1 및 1.6 × 106 K S-1 에 도달했습니다. 시각적 표준으로 표면 거칠기를 선택하고, 낮은 레이저 에너지 AlCu5MnCdVA 합금 최적 공정 매개변수 창을 수치 시뮬레이션으로 얻었습니다: 레이저 출력 250W, 부화 공간 0.11mm, 층 두께 0.03mm, 레이저 스캔 속도 1.5m s-1 .

또한, 실험 프린팅과 수치 시뮬레이션과 비교할 때, 용융 풀의 폭은 각각 약 205um 및 약 210um이었고, 인접한 두 용융 트랙 사이의 중첩은 모두 약 65um이었다. 결과는 수치 시뮬레이션 결과가 실험 인쇄 결과와 기본적으로 일치함을 보여 수치 시뮬레이션 모델의 정확성을 입증했습니다.

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) has become one of the most promising technologies in Metal Additive Manufacturing (MAM), which is a complex dynamic non-equilibrium process involving heat transfer, melting, phase transition, vaporization and mass transfer. The characteristics of the molten pool (structure, temperature flow and velocity flow) have a decisive influence on the final forming quality of SLM. In this study, both numerical simulation and experiments were employed to study molten pool structure, temperature flow and velocity field in Selective Laser Melting AlCu5MnCdVA alloy. The results showed the structure of molten pool showed different forms(deep-concave structure, double-concave structure, plane structure, protruding structure and ideal planar structure), and the size of the molten pool was approximately 132 μm × 107 μm × 50 μm: in the early stage, molten pool was in a state of deep-concave shape with a depth of 15 μm due to multiple driving forces, while a protruding shape with a height of 10 μm duo to tension gradient in the later stages of forming. The metal flow inside the molten pool was mainly driven by laser impact force, metal liquid gravity, surface tension and recoil pressure. For AlCu5MnCdVA alloy, metal liquid solidification speed was extremely fast(3.5 × 10−4 S), the heating rate and cooling rate reached 6.5 × 107 K S−1 and 1.6 × 106 K S−1 , respectively. Choosing surface roughness as a visual standard, low-laser energy AlCu5MnCdVA alloy optimum process parameters window was obtained by numerical simulation: laser power 250 W, hatching space 0.11 mm, layer thickness 0.03 mm, laser scanning velocity 1.5 m s−1 . In addition, compared with experimental printing and numerical simulation, the width of the molten pool was about 205 um and about 210 um, respectively, and overlapping between two adjacent molten tracks was all about 65 um. The results showed that the numerical simulation results were basically consistent with the experimental print results, which proved the correctness of the numerical simulation model.

Figure 1. AlCu5MnCdVA powder particle size distribution.

Figure 3. Finite element model and calculation domains of SLM.

Figure 17. Two-pass molten tracks overlapping for Scheme NO.2.

References

[1] Cuiyun H 2008 Phase diagram determination and thermodynamic study of Al–Cu–Mn, Al–Cu–Si, Al–Mg–Ni and Ni–Ti–Si systems Central South University
[2] Zhanfei Z 2017 Study on theta phase segregation and room temperature properties of high strength cast Al–Cu–Mn alloy Lanzhou University of Technology
[3] Nie X et al 2018 Analysis of processing parameters and characteristics of selective laser melted high strength Al–Cu–Mg alloys: from single tracks to cubic samplesJ. Mater. Process. Technol. 256 69–77
[4] Shenping Y et al 2017 Laser absorptance measurement of commonly used metal materials in laser additive manufacturing technology Aviation Manufacturing Technology 12 23–9
[5] Wenqing W 2007 Relationship between cooling rate and grain size of AlCu5MnCdVA alloy Harbin University of Technology
[6] Majeed M, Vural M, Raja S and Bilal Naim Shaikh M 2019 Finite element analysis of thermal behavior in maraging steel during SLM process Optik 208 113–24
[7] Khairallah S A, Anderson A T, Rubenchik A and King W E 2016 Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: physics of complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter, and denudation zones Acta Mater. 108 36–45
[8] Bo C, Zhiyu X, Quanquan Z, Yuanbiao W, Liping W and Jin C 2020 Process optimization and microstructure and properties of SLM forming Cu6AlNiSnInCe imitation gold alloy Chin. J. Nonferr. Met. 30 372–82
[9] Li W 2012 Research on performance of metal parts formed by selective laser melting Huazhong University of Science and Technology
[10] Yu Q 2013 The influence of different laser heat sources on the surface shape of the molten pool in laser cladding Surf. Technol. 42 40–3

[11] Xianfeng J, Xiangchen M, Rongwei S, Xigen Y and Ming Y 2015 Research on the influence of material state change on temperature field
in SLM processing Applied Laser 35 155–9
[12] Körner C, Attar E and Heinl P 2011 Mesoscopic simulation of selective beam melting processesJ. Mater. Process. Technol. 211 978–87
[13] Yadroitsev I, Gusarov A, Yadroitsava I and Smurov I 2010 Single track formation in selective laser melting of metal powdersJ. Mater.
Process. Technol. 210 1624–31
[14] King W, Anderson A T, Ferencz R M, Hodge N E, Kamath C and Khairallah S A 2014 Overview of modelling and simulation of metal
powder bed fusion process at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Mater. Sci. Technol. 31 957–68
[15] Hussein A, Hao L, Yan C and Everson R 2013 Finite element simulation of the temperature and stress fields in single layers built
without-support in selective laser melting Materials & Design (1980–2015) 52 638–47
[16] Qiu C, Panwisawas C, Ward M, Basoalto H C, Brooks J W and Attallah M M 2015 On the role of melt flow into the surface structure and
porosity development during selective laser melting Acta Mater. 96 72–9
[17] Weihao Y, Hui C and Qingsong W 2020 Thermodynamic behavior of laser selective melting molten pool under the action of recoil
pressure Journal of Mechanical Engineering 56 213–9
[18] Weijuan Y 2019 Numerical simulation of melt pool temperature field and morphology evolution during laser selective melting process
Xi’an University of Technology
[19] Genwang W 2017 Research on the establishment of laser heat source model based on energy distribution and its simulation application
Harbin Institute of Technology
[20] FLOW-3D 2017 User Manual (USA: FLOW SCIENCE)
[21] Hirt C and Nichols B 1981 Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundariesJ. Comput. Phys. 39 201–25
[22] Hu Z, Zhang H, Zhu H, Xiao Z, Nie X and Zeng X 2019 Microstructure, mechanical properties and strengthening mechanisms of
AlCu5MnCdVA aluminum alloy fabricated by selective laser melting Materials Science and Engineering: A 759 154–66
[23] Ketai H, Liu Z and Lechang Y 2020 Simulation of temperature field, microstructure and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel in
selected laser melting Progress in Laser and Optoelectronics 9 1–18
[24] Cao L 2020 Workpiece-scale numerical simulations of SLM molten pool dynamic behavior of 316L stainless steel Comput. Math. Appl.
4 22–34
[25] Dening Z, Yongping L, Tinglu H and Junyi S 2000 Numerical study of fluid flow and heat transfer in molten pool under the condition of
moving heat source J. Met. 4 387–90
[26] Chengyun C, Cui F and Wenlong Z 2018 The effect of Marangoni flow on the thermal behavior and melt flow behavior of laser cladding
Applied Laser 38 409–16
[27] Peiying B and Enhuai Y 2020 The effect of laser power on the morphology and residual stress of the molten pool of metal laser selective
melting Progress in Laser and Optoelectronics 7 1–12 http://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/31.1690.TN.20190717.0933.032.html
[28] Zhen L, Dongyun Z, Zhe F and Chengjie W 2017 Numerical simulation of the influence of overlap rate on the forming quality of
Inconel 718 alloy by selective laser melting processing Applied Laser 37 187–93
[29] Wei W, Qi L, Guang Y, Lanyun Q and Xiong X 2015 Numerical simulation of electromagnetic field, temperature field and flowfield of
laser melting pool under the action of electromagnetic stirring China Laser 42 48–55
[30] Hu Y, He X, Yu G and Zhao S 2016 Capillary convection in pulsed—butt welding of miscible dissimilar couple Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.
Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 231 2429–40
[31] Li R 2010 Research on the key basic problems of selective laser melting forming of metal powder Huazhong University of Science and
Technology
[32] Zijue T, Weiwei L, Zhaorui Y, Hao W and Hongchao Z 2019 Study on the shape evolution behavior of metal laser melting deposition
based on molten pool dynamic characteristicsJournal of Mechanical Engineering 55 39–47
[33] Pan L, Cheng-Lin Z, Hai-Yi L, Liang W and Tong L 2020 A new two-step selective laser remelting of 316L stainless steel: process,
density, surface roughness, mechanical properties, microstructure Mater. Res. Express 7 056503
[34] Pan L, Cheng-Lin Z, Hai-Yi L, Jiang H, Tong L and Liang W 2019 The influence and optimization of forming process parameters of
316L stainless steel prepared by laser melting on the density Forging Technology 44 103–9

원본보기

Temperature contours& velocity vectors just after spray off

NASA Perspectives on Cryo H2 Storage

Cryo H2 저장에 대한 NASA의 관점

DOE Hydrogen Storage Workshop
Marriott Crystal Gateway
Arlington, VA
February 15, 2011
David J. Chato
NASA Glenn Research Center
Michael P. Doherty
NASA Glenn Research Center

Objectives

Purposes of this Presentation
• To show the role of Cryogenics in NASA prior missions
• To show recent NASA accomplishments in cryogenic fluid management technology
• To highlight the importance of long term cryogenic storage to future NASA missions (especially Human Space flight)

What is Cryogenic Fluid Management?

The Cartoon Guide to Cryogenic Fluid Management Illustrating Key Concepts in Iconic Form

GRC Cryogenic Fluid Management Accomplishments

Baseline CFD Models Validated Against K-Site, MHTB, and S-IVB Data

Objective:
Perform model development and validation of the baseline computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) codes Flow-3D (with point source spray model) and Fluent (with
lumped-ullage model) for three self-pressurization experiments and one set of spray bar
thermodynamic vent system (TVS) experiments. Accuracy of CFD codes assessed by
comparing experimental data and CFD predictions for ullage pressure versus time.

Key Accomplishment/Deliverable/Milestone:
• Develop lumped-ullage model (non-moving zero-thickness interface) enabling
reduced simulations times compared to Flow-3D, but with limitations on accuracy and
applicability to situations with significant interface movement.
• Lumped-ullage with spray model development completed, but not tested and
validated due to loss of key researcher in June 2009. New person identified to
complete this work by end of FY10. (Updated milestone report will be issued).

Flow-3D Volume of Fluid (VOF) and Fluent lumped-ullage models
validated against 2 ground-based and 1 flight experiment for LH2 selfpressurization with relative error in ullage pressure generally within 5%,
reaching 8-12% at higher liquid fill levels, and up to 18% for the Fluent
lumped-ullage simulations of the flight test (S-IVB AS 203)
• Flow-3D point source spray model developed and validated against
MHTB LH2 spray bar pressure control 1g experiment with ullage
pressure errors up to 26% for pressure rise and 47% for pressure decay

Significance:
• Two CFD models have been developed with errors quantified for selfpressurization and pressure control of cryogenic storage tanks.
• Baseline CFD models are now available Exploration mission
applications (including in-space low gravity applications) and
design/post-analysis of current CFM experimental work. Applications to
Altair and EDS tanks have already occurred and/or are underway.

Flow-3D results: MHTB LH2 1g test, 50% fill

원문보기

Figure 5 A schematic of the water model of reactor URO 200.

Physical and Numerical Modeling of the Impeller Construction Impact on the Aluminum Degassing Process

알루미늄 탈기 공정에 미치는 임펠러 구성의 물리적 및 수치적 모델링

Kamil Kuglin,¹ Michał Szucki,² Jacek Pieprzyca,³ Simon Genthe,² Tomasz Merder,³ and Dorota Kalisz^1,^*

Mikael Ersson, Academic Editor

Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer

Associated Data

Data Availability Statement

Go to:

Abstract

This paper presents the results of tests on the suitability of designed heads (impellers) for aluminum refining. The research was carried out on a physical model of the URO-200, followed by numerical simulations in the FLOW 3D program. Four design variants of impellers were used in the study. The degree of dispersion of the gas phase in the model liquid was used as a criterion for evaluating the performance of each solution using different process parameters, i.e., gas flow rate and impeller speed. Afterward, numerical simulations in Flow 3D software were conducted for the best solution. These simulations confirmed the results obtained with the water model and verified them.

Keywords: aluminum, impeller construction, degassing process, numerical modeling, physical modeling

Go to:

1. Introduction

Constantly increasing requirements concerning metallurgical purity in terms of hydrogen content and nonmetallic inclusions make casting manufacturers use effective refining techniques. The answer to this demand is the implementation of the aluminum refining technique making use of a rotor with an original design guaranteeing efficient refining [1,2,3,4]. The main task of the impeller (rotor) is to reduce the contamination of liquid metal (primary and recycled aluminum) with hydrogen and nonmetallic inclusions. An inert gas, mainly argon or a mixture of gases, is introduced through the rotor into the liquid metal to bring both hydrogen and nonmetallic inclusions to the metal surface through the flotation process. Appropriately and uniformly distributed gas bubbles in the liquid metal guarantee achieving the assumed level of contaminant removal economically. A very important factor in deciding about the obtained degassing effect is the optimal rotor design [5,6,7,8]. Thanks to the appropriate geometry of the rotor, gas bubbles introduced into the liquid metal are split into smaller ones, and the spinning movement of the rotor distributes them throughout the volume of the liquid metal bath. In this solution impurities in the liquid metal are removed both in the volume and from the upper surface of the metal. With a well-designed impeller, the costs of refining aluminum and its alloys can be lowered thanks to the reduced inert gas and energy consumption (optimal selection of rotor rotational speed). Shorter processing time and a high degree of dehydrogenation decrease the formation of dross on the metal surface (waste). A bigger produced dross leads to bigger process losses. Consequently, this means that the choice of rotor geometry has an indirect impact on the degree to which the generated waste is reduced [9,10].

Another equally important factor is the selection of process parameters such as gas flow rate and rotor speed [11,12]. A well-designed gas injection system for liquid metal meets two key requirements; it causes rapid mixing of the liquid metal to maintain a uniform temperature throughout the volume and during the entire process, to produce a chemically homogeneous metal composition. This solution ensures effective degassing of the metal bath. Therefore, the shape of the rotor, the arrangement of the nozzles, and their number are significant design parameters that guarantee the optimum course of the refining process. It is equally important to complete the mixing of the metal bath in a relatively short time, as this considerably shortens the refining process and, consequently, reduces the process costs. Another important criterion conditioning the implementation of the developed rotor is the generation of fine diffused gas bubbles which are distributed throughout the metal volume, and whose residence time will be sufficient for the bubbles to collide and adsorb the contaminants. The process of bubble formation by the spinning rotors differs from that in the nozzles or porous molders. In the case of a spinning rotor, the shear force generated by the rotor motion splits the bubbles into smaller ones. Here, the rotational speed, mixing force, surface tension, and fluid density have a key effect on the bubble size. The velocity of the bubbles, which depends mainly on their size and shape, determines their residence time in the reactor and is, therefore, very important for the refining process, especially since gas bubbles in liquid aluminum may remain steady only below a certain size [13,14,15].

The impeller designs presented in the article were developed to improve the efficiency of the process and reduce its costs. The impellers used so far have a complicated structure and are very pricey. The success of the conducted research will allow small companies to become independent of external supplies through the possibility of making simple and effective impellers on their own. The developed structures were tested on the water model. The results of this study can be considered as pilot.

Go to:

2. Materials and Methods

Rotors were realized with the SolidWorks computer design technique and a 3D printer. The developed designs were tested on a water model. Afterward, the solution with the most advantageous refining parameters was selected and subjected to calculations with the Flow3D package. As a result, an impeller was designed for aluminum refining. Its principal lies in an even distribution of gas bubbles in the entire volume of liquid metal, with the largest possible participation of the bubble surface, without disturbing the metal surface. This procedure guarantees the removal of gaseous, as well as metallic and nonmetallic, impurities.

2.1. Rotor Designs

The developed impeller constructions, shown in Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, were printed on a 3D printer using the PLA (polylactide) material. The impeller design models differ in their shape and the number of holes through which the inert gas flows. Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the same impeller model but with a different number of gas outlets. The arrangement of four, eight, and 12 outlet holes was adopted in the developed design. A triangle-shaped structure equipped with three gas outlet holes is presented in Figure 4.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g001.jpg

Figure 1

A 3D model—impeller with four holes—variant B4.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g002.jpg

Figure 2

A 3D model—impeller with eight holes—variant B8.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g003.jpg

Figure 3

A 3D model—impeller with twelve holes—variant B12.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g004.jpg

Figure 4

A 3D model—‘red triangle’ impeller with three holes—variant RT3.

2.2. Physical Models

Investigations were carried out on a water model of the URO 200 reactor of the barbotage refining process (see Figure 5).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g005.jpg

Figure 5

A schematic of the water model of reactor URO 200.

The URO 200 reactor can be classified as a cyclic reactor. The main element of the device is a rotor, which ends the impeller. The whole system is attached to a shaft via which the refining gas is supplied. Then, the shaft with the rotor is immersed in the liquid metal in the melting pot or the furnace chamber. In URO 200 reactors, the refining process lasts 600 s (10 min), the gas flow rate that can be obtained ranges from 5 to 20 dm³·min⁻¹, and the speed at which the rotor can move is 0 to 400 rpm. The permissible quantity of liquid metal for barbotage refining is 300 kg or 700 kg [8,16,17]. The URO 200 has several design solutions which improve operation and can be adapted to the existing equipment in the foundry. These solutions include the following [8,16]:

URO-200XR—used for small crucible furnaces, the capacity of which does not exceed 250 kg, with no control system and no control of the refining process.
URO-200SA—used to service several crucible furnaces of capacity from 250 kg to 700 kg, fully automated and equipped with a mechanical rotor lift.
URO-200KA—used for refining processes in crucible furnaces and allows refining in a ladle. The process is fully automated, with a hydraulic rotor lift.
URO-200KX—a combination of the XR and KA models, designed for the ladle refining process. Additionally, refining in heated crucibles is possible. The unit is equipped with a manual hydraulic rotor lift.
URO-200PA—designed to cooperate with induction or crucible furnaces or intermediate chambers, the capacity of which does not exceed one ton. This unit is an integral part of the furnace. The rotor lift is equipped with a screw drive.

Studies making use of a physical model can be associated with the observation of the flow and circulation of gas bubbles. They require meeting several criteria regarding the similarity of the process and the object characteristics. The similarity conditions mainly include geometric, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and kinetic parameters. During simulation of aluminum refining with inert gas, it is necessary to maintain the geometric similarity between the model and the real object, as well as the similarity related to the flow of liquid metal and gas (hydrodynamic similarity). These quantities are characterized by the Reynolds, Weber, and Froude numbers. The Froude number is the most important parameter characterizing the process, its magnitude is the same for the physical model and the real object. Water was used as the medium in the physical modeling. The factors influencing the choice of water are its availability, relatively low cost, and kinematic viscosity at room temperature, which is very close to that of liquid aluminum.

The physical model studies focused on the flow of inert gas in the form of gas bubbles with varying degrees of dispersion, particularly with respect to some flow patterns such as flow in columns and geysers, as well as disturbance of the metal surface. The most important refining parameters are gas flow rate and rotor speed. The barbotage refining studies for the developed impeller (variants B4, B8, B12, and RT3) designs were conducted for the following process parameters:

Rotor speed: 200, 300, 400, and 500 rpm,
Ideal gas flow: 10, 20, and 30 dm³·min⁻¹,
Temperature: 293 K (20 °C).

These studies were aimed at determining the most favorable variants of impellers, which were then verified using the numerical modeling methods in the Flow-3D program.

2.3. Numerical Simulations with Flow-3D Program

Testing different rotor impellers using a physical model allows for observing the phenomena taking place while refining. This is a very important step when testing new design solutions without using expensive industrial trials. Another solution is modeling by means of commercial simulation programs such as ANSYS Fluent or Flow-3D [18,19]. Unlike studies on a physical model, in a computer program, the parameters of the refining process and the object itself, including the impeller design, can be easily modified. The simulations were performed with the Flow-3D program version 12.03.02. A three-dimensional system with the same dimensions as in the physical modeling was used in the calculations. The isothermal flow of liquid–gas bubbles was analyzed. As in the physical model, three speeds were adopted in the numerical tests: 200, 300, and 500 rpm. During the initial phase of the simulations, the velocity field around the rotor generated an appropriate direction of motion for the newly produced bubbles. When the required speed was reached, the generation of randomly distributed bubbles around the rotor was started at a rate of 2000 per second. Table 1 lists the most important simulation parameters.

Table 1

Values of parameters used in the calculations.

Parameter	Value	Unit
Maximum number of gas particles	1,000,000	–
Rate of particle generation	2000	1·s⁻¹
Specific gas constant	287.058	J·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹
Atmospheric pressure	1.013 × 10⁵	Pa
Water density	1000	kg·m⁻³
Water viscosity	0.001	kg·m⁻¹·s⁻¹
Boundary condition on the walls	No-slip	–
Size of computational cell	0.0034	m

Open in a separate window

In the case of the CFD analysis, the numerical solutions require great care when generating the computational mesh. Therefore, computational mesh tests were performed prior to the CFD calculations. The effect of mesh density was evaluated by taking into account the velocity of water in the tested object on the measurement line A (height of 0.065 m from the bottom) in a characteristic cross-section passing through the object axis (see Figure 6). The mesh contained 3,207,600, 6,311,981, 7,889,512, 11,569,230, and 14,115,049 cells.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g006.jpg

Figure 6

The velocity of the water depending on the size of the computational grid.

The quality of the generated computational meshes was checked using the criterion skewness angle Q_EAS [18]. This criterion is described by the following relationship:

QEAS=max{βmax−βeq180−βeq,βeq−βminβeq},

(1)

where β_max, β_min are the maximal and minimal angles (in degrees) between the edges of the cell, and β_eq is the angle corresponding to an ideal cell, which for cubic cells is 90°.

Normalized in the interval [0;1], the value of Q_EAS should not exceed 0.75, which identifies the permissible skewness angle of the generated mesh. For the computed meshes, this value was equal to 0.55–0.65.

Moreover, when generating the computational grids in the studied facility, they were compacted in the areas of the highest gradients of the calculated values, where higher turbulence is to be expected (near the impeller). The obtained results of water velocity in the studied object at constant gas flow rate are shown in Figure 6.

The analysis of the obtained water velocity distributions (see Figure 6) along the line inside the object revealed that, with the density of the grid of nodal points, the velocity changed and its changes for the test cases of 7,889,512, 11,569,230, and 14,115,049 were insignificant. Therefore, it was assumed that a grid containing not less than 7,900,000 (7,889,512) cells would not affect the result of CFD calculations.

A single-block mesh of regular cells with a size of 0.0034 m was used in the numerical calculations. The total number of cells was approximately 7,900,000 (7,889,512). This grid resolution (see Figure 7) allowed the geometry of the system to be properly represented, maintaining acceptable computation time (about 3 days on a workstation with 2× CPU and 12 computing cores).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g007.jpg

Figure 7

Structured equidistant mesh used in numerical calculations: (a) mesh with smoothed, surface cells (the so-called FAVOR method) used in Flow-3D; (b) visualization of the applied mesh resolution.

The calculations were conducted with an explicit scheme. The timestep was selected by the program automatically and controlled by stability and convergence. From the moment of the initial velocity field generation (start of particle generation), it was 0.0001 s.

When modeling the degassing process, three fluids are present in the system: water, gas supplied through the rotor head (impeller), and the surrounding air. Modeling such a multiphase flow is a numerically very complex issue. The necessity to overcome the liquid backpressure by the gas flowing out from the impeller leads to the formation of numerical instabilities in the volume of fluid (VOF)-based approach used by Flow-3D software. Therefore, a mixed description of the analyzed flow was used here. In this case, water was treated as a continuous medium, while, in the case of gas bubbles, the discrete phase model (DPM) model was applied. The way in which the air surrounding the system was taken into account is later described in detail.

The following additional assumptions were made in the modeling:

—The liquid phase was considered as an incompressible Newtonian fluid.
—The effect of chemical reactions during the refining process was neglected.
—The composition of each phase (gas and liquid) was considered homogeneous; therefore, the viscosity and surface tension were set as constants.
—Only full turbulence existed in the liquid, and the effect of molecular viscosity was neglected.
—The gas bubbles were shaped as perfect spheres.
—The mutual interaction between gas bubbles (particles) was neglected.

2.3.1. Modeling of Liquid Flow

The motion of the real fluid (continuous medium) is described by the Navier–Stokes Equation [20].

dudt=−1ρ∇p+ν∇2u+13ν∇(∇⋅ u)+F,

(2)

where du/dt is the time derivative, u is the velocity vector, t is the time, and F is the term accounting for external forces including gravity (unit components denoted by X, Y, Z).

In the simulations, the fluid flow was assumed to be incompressible, in which case the following equation is applicable:

∂u∂t+(u⋅∇)u=−1ρ∇p+ν∇2u+F.

(3)

Due to the large range of liquid velocities during flows, the turbulence formation process was included in the modeling. For this purpose, the k–ε model turbulence kinetic energy k and turbulence dissipation ε were the target parameters, as expressed by the following equations [21]:

∂(ρk)∂t+∂(ρkvi)∂xi=∂∂xj[(μ+μtσk)⋅∂k∂xi]+Gk+Gb−ρε−Ym+Sk,

(4)

∂(ρε)∂t+∂(ρεui)∂xi=∂∂xj[(μ+μtσε)⋅∂k∂xi]+C1εεk(Gk+G3εGb)+C2ερε2k+Sε,

(5)

where ρ is the gas density, σ_κ and σ_ε are the Prandtl turbulence numbers, k and ε are constants of 1.0 and 1.3, and G_k and G_b are the kinetic energy of turbulence generated by the average velocity and buoyancy, respectively.

As mentioned earlier, there are two gas phases in the considered problem. In addition to the gas bubbles, which are treated here as particles, there is also air, which surrounds the system. The boundary of phase separation is in this case the free surface of the water. The shape of the free surface can change as a result of the forming velocity field in the liquid. Therefore, it is necessary to use an appropriate approach to free surface tracking. The most commonly used concept in liquid–gas flow modeling is the volume of fluid (VOF) method [22,23], and Flow-3D uses a modified version of this method called TrueVOF. It introduces the concept of the volume fraction of the liquid phase f_l. This parameter can be used for classifying the cells of a discrete grid into areas filled with liquid phase (f_l = 1), gaseous phase, or empty cells (f_l = 0) and those through which the phase separation boundary (f_l ∈ (0, 1)) passes (free surface). To determine the local variations of the liquid phase fraction, it is necessary to solve the following continuity equation:

dfldt=0.

(6)

Then, the fluid parameters in the region of coexistence of the two phases (the so-called interface) depend on the volume fraction of each phase.

ρ=flρl+(1−fl)ρg,

(7)

ν=flνl+(1−fl)νg,

(8)

where indices l and g refer to the liquid and gaseous phases, respectively.

The parameter of fluid velocity in cells containing both phases is also determined in the same way.

u=flul+(1−fl)ug.

(9)

Since the processes taking place in the surrounding air can be omitted, to speed up the calculations, a single-phase, free-surface model was used. This means that no calculations were performed in the gas cells (they were treated as empty cells). The liquid could fill them freely, and the air surrounding the system was considered by the atmospheric pressure exerted on the free surface. This approach is often used in modeling foundry and metallurgical processes [24].

2.3.2. Modeling of Gas Bubble Flow

As stated, a particle model was used to model bubble flow. Spherical particles (gas bubbles) of a given size were randomly generated in the area marked with green in Figure 7b. In the simulations, the gas bubbles were assumed to have diameters of 0.016 and 0.02 m corresponding to the gas flow rates of 10 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹, respectively.

Experimental studies have shown that, as a result of turbulent fluid motion, some of the bubbles may burst, leading to the formation of smaller bubbles, although merging of bubbles into larger groupings may also occur. Therefore, to be able to observe the behavior of bubbles of different sizes (diameter), the calculations generated two additional particle types with diameters twice smaller and twice larger, respectively. The proportion of each species in the system was set to 33.33% (Table 2).

Table 2

Data assumed for calculations.

No	Rotor Speed (Rotational Speed) rpm	Bubbles Diameter m	Corresponding Gas Flow Rate dm³·min⁻¹	No	Rotor Speed (Rotational Speed) rpm	Bubbles Diameter m	Corresponding Gas Flow Rate dm³·min⁻¹
A	200	0.016	10	D	200	0.02	30
0.008	0.01
0.032	0.04
B	300	0.016	10	E	300	0.02	30
0.008	0.01
0.032	0.04
C	500	0.016	10	F	500	0.02	30
0.008	0.01
0.032	0.04

Open in a separate window

The velocity of the particle results from the generated velocity field (calculated from Equation (3) in the liquid ul around it and its velocity resulting from the buoyancy force ub. The effect of particle radius r on the terminal velocity associated with buoyancy force can be determined according to Stokes’ law.

ub=29 (ρg−ρl)μlgr2,

(10)

where g is the acceleration (9.81).

The DPM model was used for modeling the two-phase (water–air) flow. In this model, the fluid (water) is treated as a continuous phase and described by the Navier–Stokes equation, while gas bubbles are particles flowing in the model fluid (discrete phase). The trajectories of each bubble in the DPM system are calculated at each timestep taking into account the mass forces acting on it. Table 3 characterizes the DPM model used in our own research [18].

Table 3

Characteristic of the DPM model.

Method	Equations
Euler–Lagrange	Balance equation: dugdt=FD(u−ug)+g(ϱg−ϱ)ϱg+F. F_D (u − u_p) denotes the drag forces per mass unit of a bubble, and the expression for the drag coefficient F_D is of the form FD=18μCDReϱ⋅gd2g24. The relative Reynolds number has the form Re≡ρdg\|ug−u\|μ. On the other hand, the force resulting from the additional acceleration of the model fluid has the form F=12dρdtρg(u−ug), where u_g is the gas bubble velocity, u is the liquid velocity, d_g is the bubble diameter, and C_D is the drag coefficient.

Method

Equations

Euler–Lagrange

Balance equation:
dugdt=FD(u−ug)+g(ϱg−ϱ)ϱg+F.
F_D (u − u_p) denotes the drag forces per mass unit of a bubble, and the expression for the drag coefficient F_D is of the form
FD=18μCDReϱ⋅gd2g24.
The relative Reynolds number has the form
Re≡ρdg|ug−u|μ.
On the other hand, the force resulting from the additional acceleration of the model fluid has the form
F=12dρdtρg(u−ug),
where u_g is the gas bubble velocity, u is the liquid velocity, d_g is the bubble diameter, and C_D is the drag coefficient.

Open in a separate window

Go to:

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Calculations of Power and Mixing Time by the Flowing Gas Bubbles

One of the most important parameters of refining with a rotor is the mixing power induced by the spinning rotor and the outflowing gas bubbles (via impeller). The mixing power of liquid metal in a ladle of height (h) by gas injection can be determined from the following relation [15]:

pgVm=ρ⋅g⋅uB,

(11)

where p_g is the mixing power, V_m is the volume of liquid metal in the reactor, ρ is the density of liquid aluminum, and u_B is the average speed of bubbles, given below.

uB=n⋅R⋅TAc⋅Pm⋅t,

(12)

where n is the number of gas moles, R is the gas constant (8.314), A_c is the cross-sectional area of the reactor vessel, T is the temperature of liquid aluminum in the reactor, and P_m is the pressure at the middle tank level. The pressure at the middle level of the tank is calculated by a function of the mean logarithmic difference.

Pm=(Pa+ρ⋅g⋅h)−Paln(Pa+ρ⋅g⋅h)Pa,

(13)

where P_a is the atmospheric pressure, and h is the the height of metal in the reactor.

Themelis and Goyal [25] developed a model for calculating mixing power delivered by gas injection.

pg=2Q⋅R⋅T⋅ln(1+m⋅ρ⋅g⋅hP),

(14)

where Q is the gas flow, and m is the mass of liquid metal.

Zhang [26] proposed a model taking into account the temperature difference between gas and alloy (metal).

pg=QRTgVm[ln(1+ρ⋅g⋅hPa)+(1−TTg)],

(15)

where T_g is the gas temperature at the entry point.

Data for calculating the mixing power resulting from inert gas injection into liquid aluminum are given below in Table 4. The design parameters were adopted for the model, the parameters of which are shown in Figure 5.

Table 4

Data for calculating mixing power introduced by an inert gas.

Parameter	Value	Unit
Height of metal column	0.7	m
Density of aluminum	2375	kg·m⁻³
Process duration	20	s
Gas temperature at the injection site	940	K
Cross-sectional area of ladle	0.448	m²
Mass of liquid aluminum	546.25	kg
Volume of ladle	0.23	M³
Temperature of liquid aluminum	941.15	K

Open in a separate window

Table 5 presents the results of mixing power calculations according to the models of Themelis and Goyal and of Zhang for inert gas flows of 10, 20, and 30 dm³·min⁻¹. The obtained calculation results significantly differed from each other. The difference was an order of magnitude, which indicates that the model is highly inaccurate without considering the temperature of the injected gas. Moreover, the calculations apply to the case when the mixing was performed only by the flowing gas bubbles, without using a rotor, which is a great simplification of the phenomenon.

Table 5

Mixing power calculated from mathematical models.

Mathematical Model	Mixing Power (W·t⁻¹) for a Given Inert Gas Flow (dm³·min⁻¹)
	10	20	30
Themelis and Goyal	11.49	23.33	35.03
Zhang	0.82	1.66	2.49

Open in a separate window

The mixing time is defined as the time required to achieve 95% complete mixing of liquid metal in the ladle [27,28,29,30]. Table 6 groups together equations for the mixing time according to the models.

Table 6

Models for calculating mixing time.

Authors	Model	Remarks
Szekely [31]	τ=800ε−0.4	ε—W·t⁻¹
Chiti and Paglianti [27]	τ=CVQl	V—volume of reactor, m³ Ql—flow intensity, m³·s⁻¹
Iguchi and Nakamura [32]	τ=1200⋅Q−0.4D1.97h−1.0υ0.47	υ—kinematic viscosity, m²·s⁻¹ D—diameter of ladle, m h—height of metal column, m Q—liquid flow intensity, m³·s⁻¹

Open in a separate window

Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the mixing time as a function of gas flow rate for various heights of the liquid column in the ladle and mixing power values.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g008.jpg

Figure 8

Mixing time as a function of gas flow rate for various heights of the metal column (Iguchi and Nakamura model).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g009.jpg

Figure 9

Mixing time as a function of mixing power (Szekly model).

3.2. Determining the Bubble Size

The mechanisms controlling bubble size and mass transfer in an alloy undergoing refining are complex. Strong mixing conditions in the reactor promote impurity mass transfer. In the case of a spinning rotor, the shear force generated by the rotor motion separates the bubbles into smaller bubbles. Rotational speed, mixing force, surface tension, and liquid density have a strong influence on the bubble size. To characterize the kinetic state of the refining process, parameters k and A were introduced. Parameters k, A, and u_B can be calculated using the below equations [33].

k=2D⋅uBdB⋅π−−−−−−√,

(16)

A=6Q⋅hdB⋅uB,

(17)

uB=1.02g⋅dB,−−−−−√

(18)

where D is the diffusion coefficient, and d_B is the bubble diameter.

After substituting appropriate values, we get

dB=3.03×104(πD)−2/5g−1/5h4/5Q0.344N−1.48.

(19)

According to the last equation, the size of the gas bubble decreases with the increasing rotational speed (see Figure 10).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g010.jpg

Figure 10

Effect of rotational speed on the bubble diameter.

In a flow of given turbulence intensity, the diameter of the bubble does not exceed the maximum size d_max, which is inversely proportional to the rate of kinetic energy dissipation in a viscous flow ε. The size of the gas bubble diameter as a function of the mixing energy, also considering the Weber number and the mixing energy in the negative power, can be determined from the following equations [31,34]:

—Sevik and Park:

dBmax=We0.6kr⋅(σ⋅103ρ⋅10−3)0.6⋅(10⋅ε)−0.4⋅10−2.

(20)

—Evans:

dBmax=⎡⎣Wekr⋅σ⋅1032⋅(ρ⋅10−3)13⎤⎦35 ⋅(10⋅ε)−25⋅10−2.

(21)

The results of calculating the maximum diameter of the bubble d_Bmax determined from Equation (21) are given in Table 7.

Table 7

The results of calculating the maximum diameter of the bubble using Equation (21).

Model	Mixing Energy ĺ (m²·s⁻³)	Weber Number (We_kr)
0.59	1.0	1.2
Zhang and Taniguchi d_max	0.1	0.0167	0.0230	0.026
0.5	0.0088	0.0121	0.013
1.0	0.0067	0.0091	0.010
1.5	0.0057	0.0078	0.009
Sevik and Park d_B_max	0.1	0.265	0.36	0.41
0.5	0.139	0.19	0.21
1.0	0.106	0.14	0.16
1.5	0.090	0.12	0.14
Evans d_B_max	0.1	0.247	0.340	0.38
0.5	0.130	0.178	0.20
1.0	0.098	0.135	0.15
1.5	0.084	0.115	0.13

Open in a separate window

3.3. Physical Modeling

The first stage of experiments (using the URO-200 water model) included conducting experiments with impellers equipped with four, eight, and 12 gas outlets (variants B4, B8, B12). The tests were carried out for different process parameters. Selected results for these experiments are presented in Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g011.jpg

Figure 11

Impeller variant B4—gas bubbles dispersion registered for a gas flow rate of 10 dm³·min⁻¹ and rotor speed of (a) 200, (b) 300, (c) 400, and (d) 500 rpm.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g012.jpg

Figure 12

Impeller variant B8—gas bubbles dispersion registered for a gas flow rate of 10 dm³·min⁻¹ and rotor speed of (a) 200, (b) 300, (c) 400, and (d) 500 rpm.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g013.jpg

Figure 13

Gas bubble dispersion registered for different processing parameters (impeller variant B12).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g014.jpg

Figure 14

Gas bubble dispersion registered for different processing parameters (impeller variant RT3).

The analysis of the refining variants presented in Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14 reveals that the proposed impellers design model is not useful for the aluminum refining process. The number of gas outlet orifices, rotational speed, and flow did not affect the refining efficiency. In all the variants shown in the figures, very poor dispersion of gas bubbles was observed in the object. The gas bubble flow had a columnar character, and so-called dead zones, i.e., areas where no inert gas bubbles are present, were visible in the analyzed object. Such dead zones were located in the bottom and side zones of the ladle, while the flow of bubbles occurred near the turning rotor. Another negative phenomenon observed was a significant agitation of the water surface due to excessive (rotational) rotor speed and gas flow (see Figure 13, cases 20; 400, 30; 300, 30; 400, and 30; 500).

Research results for a ‘red triangle’ impeller equipped with three gas supply orifices (variant RT3) are presented in Figure 14.

In this impeller design, a uniform degree of bubble dispersion in the entire volume of the modeling fluid was achieved for most cases presented (see Figure 14). In all tested variants, single bubbles were observed in the area of the water surface in the vessel. For variants 20; 200, 30; 200, and 20; 300 shown in Figure 14, the bubble dispersion results were the worst as the so-called dead zones were identified in the area near the bottom and sidewalls of the vessel, which disqualifies these work parameters for further applications. Interestingly, areas where swirls and gas bubble chains formed were identified only for the inert gas flows of 20 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm in the analyzed model. This means that the presented model had the best performance in terms of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid. Its design with sharp edges also differed from previously analyzed models, which is beneficial for gas bubble dispersion, but may interfere with its suitability in industrial conditions due to possible premature wear.

3.4. Qualitative Comparison of Research Results (CFD and Physical Model)

The analysis (physical modeling) revealed that the best mixing efficiency results were obtained with the RT3 impeller variant. Therefore, numerical calculations were carried out for the impeller model with three outlet orifices (variant RT3). The CFD results are presented in Figure 15 and Figure 16.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g015.jpg

Figure 15

Simulation results of the impeller RT3, for given flows and rotational speeds after a time of 1 s: simulation variants (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) D, (e) E, and (f) F.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g016.jpg

Figure 16

Simulation results of the impeller RT3, for given flows and rotational speeds after a time of 5.4 s.: simulation variants (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) D, (e) E, and (f) F.

CFD results are presented for all analyzed variants (impeller RT3) at two selected calculation timesteps of 1 and 5.40 s. They show the velocity field of the medium (water) and the dispersion of gas bubbles.

Figure 15 shows the initial refining phase after 1 s of the process. In this case, the gas bubble formation and flow were observed in an area close to contact with the rotor. Figure 16 shows the phase when the dispersion and flow of gas bubbles were advanced in the reactor area of the URO-200 model.

The quantitative evaluation of the obtained results of physical and numerical model tests was based on the comparison of the degree of gas dispersion in the model liquid. The degree of gas bubble dispersion in the volume of the model liquid and the areas of strong turbulent zones formation were evaluated during the analysis of the results of visualization and numerical simulations. These two effects sufficiently characterize the required course of the process from the physical point of view. The known scheme of the below description was adopted as a basic criterion for the evaluation of the degree of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid.

Minimal dispersion—single bubbles ascending in the region of their formation along the ladle axis; lack of mixing in the whole bath volume.
Accurate dispersion—single and well-mixed bubbles ascending toward the bath mirror in the region of the ladle axis; no dispersion near the walls and in the lower part of the ladle.
Uniform dispersion—most desirable; very good mixing of fine bubbles with model liquid.
Excessive dispersion—bubbles join together to form chains; large turbulence zones; uneven flow of gas.

The numerical simulation results give a good agreement with the experiments performed with the physical model. For all studied variants (used process parameters), the single bubbles were observed in the area of water surface in the vessel. For variants presented in Figure 13 (200 rpm, gas flow 20 and dm³·min⁻¹) and relevant examples in numerical simulation Figure 16, the worst bubble dispersion results were obtained because the dead zones were identified in the area near the bottom and sidewalls of the vessel, which disqualifies these work parameters for further use. The areas where swirls and gas bubble chains formed were identified only for the inert gas flows of 20 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm in the analyzed model (physical model). This means that the presented impeller model had the best performance in terms of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid. The worst bubble dispersion results were obtained because the dead zones were identified in the area near the bottom and side walls of the vessel, which disqualifies these work parameters for further use.

Figure 17 presents exemplary results of model tests (CFD and physical model) with marked gas bubble dispersion zones. All variants of tests were analogously compared, and this comparison allowed validating the numerical model.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g017.jpg

Figure 17

Compilations of model research results (CFD and physical): A—single gas bubbles formed on the surface of the modeling liquid, B—excessive formation of gas chains and swirls, C—uniform distribution of gas bubbles in the entire volume of the tank, and D—dead zones without gas bubbles, no dispersion. (a) Variant B; (b) variant F.

It should be mentioned here that, in numerical simulations, it is necessary to make certain assumptions and simplifications. The calculations assumed three particle size classes (Table 2), which represent the different gas bubbles that form due to different gas flow rates. The maximum number of particles/bubbles (Table 1) generated was assumed in advance and related to the computational capabilities of the computer. Too many particles can also make it difficult to visualize and analyze the results. The size of the particles, of course, affects their behavior during simulation, while, in the figures provided in the article, the bubbles are represented by spheres (visualization of the results) of the same size. Please note that, due to the adopted Lagrangian–Eulerian approach, the simulation did not take into account phenomena such as bubble collapse or fusion. However, the obtained results allow a comprehensive analysis of the behavior of gas bubbles in the system under consideration.

The comparative analysis of the visualization (quantitative) results obtained with the water model and CFD simulations (see Figure 17) generated a sufficient agreement from the point of view of the trends. A precise quantitative evaluation is difficult to perform because of the lack of a refraction compensating system in the water model. Furthermore, in numerical simulations, it is not possible to determine the geometry of the forming gas bubbles and their interaction with each other as opposed to the visualization in the water model. The use of both research methods is complementary. Thus, a direct comparison of images obtained by the two methods requires appropriate interpretation. However, such an assessment gives the possibility to qualitatively determine the types of the present gas bubble dispersion, thus ultimately validating the CFD results with the water model.

A summary of the visualization results for impellers RT3, i.e., analysis of the occurring gas bubble dispersion types, is presented in Table 8.

Table 8

Summary of visualization results (impeller RT3)—different types of gas bubble dispersion.

No Exp.	A	B	C	D	E	F
Gas flow rate, dm³·min⁻¹	10	30
Impeller speed, rpm	200	300	500	200	300	500
Type of dispersion	Accurate	Uniform	Uniform/excessive	Minimal	Excessive	Excessive

Open in a separate window

Tests carried out for impeller RT3 confirmed the high efficiency of gas bubble distribution in the volume of the tested object at a low inert gas flow rate of 10 dm³·min⁻¹. The most optimal variant was variant B (300 rpm, 10 dm³·min⁻¹). However, the other variants A and C (gas flow rate 10 dm³·min⁻¹) seemed to be favorable for this type of impeller and are recommended for further testing. The above process parameters will be analyzed in detail in a quantitative analysis to be performed on the basis of the obtained efficiency curves of the degassing process (oxygen removal). This analysis will give an unambiguous answer as to which process parameters are the most optimal for this type of impeller; the results are planned for publication in the next article.

It should also be noted here that the high agreement between the results of numerical calculations and physical modelling prompts a conclusion that the proposed approach to the simulation of a degassing process which consists of a single-phase flow model with a free surface and a particle flow model is appropriate. The simulation results enable us to understand how the velocity field in the fluid is formed and to analyze the distribution of gas bubbles in the system. The simulations in Flow-3D software can, therefore, be useful for both the design of the impeller geometry and the selection of process parameters.

Go to:

4. Conclusions

The results of experiments carried out on the physical model of the device for the simulation of barbotage refining of aluminum revealed that the worst results in terms of distribution and dispersion of gas bubbles in the studied object were obtained for the black impellers variants B4, B8, and B12 (multi-orifice impellers—four, eight, and 12 outlet holes, respectively).

In this case, the control of flow, speed, and number of gas exit orifices did not improve the process efficiency, and the developed design did not meet the criteria for industrial tests. In the case of the ‘red triangle’ impeller (variant RT3), uniform gas bubble dispersion was achieved throughout the volume of the modeling fluid for most of the tested variants. The worst bubble dispersion results due to the occurrence of the so-called dead zones in the area near the bottom and sidewalls of the vessel were obtained for the flow variants of 20 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm. For the analyzed model, areas where swirls and gas bubble chains were formed were found only for the inert gas flow of 20 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm. The model impeller (variant RT3) had the best performance compared to the previously presented impellers in terms of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid. Moreover, its design differed from previously presented models because of its sharp edges. This can be advantageous for gas bubble dispersion, but may negatively affect its suitability in industrial conditions due to premature wearing.

The CFD simulation results confirmed the results obtained from the experiments performed on the physical model. The numerical simulation of the operation of the ‘red triangle’ impeller model (using Flow-3D software) gave good agreement with the experiments performed on the physical model. This means that the presented model impeller, as compared to other (analyzed) designs, had the best performance in terms of gas bubble dispersion in the model liquid.

In further work, the developed numerical model is planned to be used for CFD simulations of the gas bubble distribution process taking into account physicochemical parameters of liquid aluminum based on industrial tests. Consequently, the obtained results may be implemented in production practice.

Go to:

Funding Statement

This paper was created with the financial support grants from the AGH-UST, Faculty of Foundry Engineering, Poland (16.16.170.654 and 11/990/BK_22/0083) for the Faculty of Materials Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Poland.

Go to:

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.K. and D.K.; methodology, J.P. and T.M.; validation, M.S. and S.G.; formal analysis, D.K. and T.M.; investigation, J.P., K.K. and S.G.; resources, M.S., J.P. and K.K.; writing—original draft preparation, D.K. and T.M.; writing—review and editing, D.K. and T.M.; visualization, J.P., K.K. and S.G.; supervision, D.K.; funding acquisition, D.K. and T.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Go to:

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Go to:

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Go to:

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Go to:

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Go to:

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Go to:

References

1. Zhang L., Xuewei L., Torgerson A.T., Long M. Removal of Impurity Elements from Molten Aluminium: A Review. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev. 2011;32:150–228. doi: 10.1080/08827508.2010.483396. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

2. Saternus M. Impurities of liquid aluminium-methods on their estimation and removal. Met. Form. 2015;23:115–132. [Google Scholar]

3. Żak P.L., Kalisz D., Lelito J., Gracz B., Szucki M., Suchy J.S. Modelling of non-metallic particle motion process in foundry alloys. Metalurgija. 2015;54:357–360. [Google Scholar]

4. Kalisz D., Kuglin K. Efficiency of aluminum oxide inclusions rmoval from liquid steel as a result of collisions and agglomeration on ceramic filters. Arch. Foundry Eng. 2020;20:43–48. [Google Scholar]

5. Kuglin K., Kalisz D. Evaluation of the usefulness of rotors for aluminium refining. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021;1178:012036. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/1178/1/012036. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

6. Saternus M., Merder T. Physical modeling of the impeller construction impact o the aluminium refining process. Materials. 2022;15:575. doi: 10.3390/ma15020575. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

7. Saternus M., Merder T. Physical modelling of aluminum refining process conducted in batch reactor with rotary impeller. Metals. 2018;8:726. doi: 10.3390/met8090726. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

8. Saternus M., Merder T., Pieprzyca J. The influence of impeller geometry on the gas bubbles dispersion in uro-200 reactor—RTD curves. Arch. Metall. Mater. 2015;60:2887–2893. doi: 10.1515/amm-2015-0461. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

9. Hernández-Hernández M., Camacho-Martínez J., González-Rivera C., Ramírez-Argáez M.A. Impeller design assisted by physical modeling and pilot plant trials. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2016;236:1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.04.031. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

10. Mancilla E., Cruz-Méndez W., Garduño I.E., González-Rivera C., Ramírez-Argáez M.A., Ascanio G. Comparison of the hydrodynamic performance of rotor-injector devices in a water physical model of an aluminum degassing ladle. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 2017;118:158–169. doi: 10.1016/j.cherd.2016.11.031. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

11. Michalek K., Socha L., Gryc K., Tkadleckova M., Saternus M., Pieprzyca J., Merder T. Modelling of technological parameters of aluminium melt refining in the ladle by blowing of inert gas through the rotating impeller. Arch. Metall. Mater. 2018;63:987–992. [Google Scholar]

12. Walek J., Michalek K., Tkadlecková M., Saternus M. Modelling of Technological Parameters of Aluminium Melt Refining in the Ladle by Blowing of Inert Gas through the Rotating Impeller. Metals. 2021;11:284. doi: 10.3390/met11020284. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

13. Michalek K., Gryc K., Moravka J. Physical modelling of bath homogenization in argon stirred ladle. Metalurgija. 2009;48:215–218. [Google Scholar]

14. Michalek K. The Use of Physical Modeling and Numerical Optimization for Metallurgical Processes. VSB; Ostrawa, Czech Republic: 2001. [Google Scholar]

15. Chen J., Zhao J. Light Metals. TMS; Warrendale, PA, USA: 1995. Bubble distribution in a melt treatment water model; pp. 1227–1231. [Google Scholar]

16. Saternus M. Model Matematyczny do Sterowania Procesem Rafinacji Ciekłych Stopów Aluminium Przy Zastosowaniu URO-200. Katowice, Poland: 2004. Research Project Nr 7 T08B 019 21. [Google Scholar]

17. Pietrewicz L., Wężyk W. Urządzenia do rafinacji gazowej typu URO-200 sześć lat produkcji i doświadczeń; Proceedings of the Aluminum Conference; Zakopane, Poland. 12–16 October 1998. [Google Scholar]

18. Flow3d User’s Guide. Flow Science, Inc.; Santa Fe, NM, USA: 2020. [Google Scholar]

19. Sinelnikov V., Szucki M., Merder T., Pieprzyca J., Kalisz D. Physical and numerical modeling of the slag splashing process. Materials. 2021;14:2289. doi: 10.3390/ma14092289. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

20. White F. Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill; New York, NY, USA: 2010. (McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering). [Google Scholar]

21. Yang Z., Yang L., Cheng T., Chen F., Zheng F., Wang S., Guo Y. Fluid Flow Characteristic of EAF Molten Steel with Different Bottom-Blowing Gas Flow Rate Distributions. ISIJ. 2020;60:1957–1967. doi: 10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2019-794. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

22. Nichols B.D., Hirt C.W. Methods for calculating multi-dimensional, transient free surface flows past bodies; Proceedings of the First International Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics; Gaithersburg, MD, USA. 20–22 October 1975. [Google Scholar]

23. Hirt C.W., Nichols B.D. Volume of Fluid (VOF) Method for the Dynamics of Free Boundaries. J. Comput. Phys. 1981;39:201–255. doi: 10.1016/0021-9991(81)90145-5. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

24. Szucki M., Suchy J.S., Lelito J., Malinowski P., Sobczyk J. Application of the lattice Boltzmann method for simulation of the mold filling process in the casting industry. Heat Mass Transf. 2017;53:3421–3431. doi: 10.1007/s00231-017-2069-5. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

25. Themelis N.J., Goyal P. Gas injection in steelmaking. Candian Metall. Trans. 1983;22:313–320. [Google Scholar]

26. Zhang L., Jing X., Li Y., Xu Z., Cai K. Mathematical model of decarburization of ultralow carbon steel during RH treatment. J. Univ. Sci. Technol. Beijing. 1997;4:19–23. [Google Scholar]

27. Chiti F., Paglianti A., Bujalshi W. A mechanistic model to estimate powder consumption and mixing time in aluminium industries. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 2004;82:1105–1111. doi: 10.1205/cerd.82.9.1105.44156. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

28. Bouaifi M., Roustan M. Power consumption, mixing time and homogenization energy in dual-impeller agitated gas-liquid reactors. Chem. Eng. Process. 2011;40:87–95. doi: 10.1016/S0255-2701(00)00128-8. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

29. Kang J., Lee C.H., Haam S., Koo K.K., Kim W.S. Studies on the overall oxygen transfer rate and mixing time in pilot-scale surface aeration vessel. Environ. Technol. 2001;22:1055–1068. doi: 10.1080/09593332208618215. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

30. Moucha T., Linek V., Prokopov E. Gas hold-up, mixing time and gas-liquid volumetric mass transfer coefficient of various multiple-impeller configurations: Rushton turbine, pitched blade and techmix impeller and their combinations. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2003;58:1839–1846. doi: 10.1016/S0009-2509(02)00682-6. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

31. Szekely J. Flow phenomena, mixing and mass transfer in argon-stirred ladles. Ironmak. Steelmak. 1979;6:285–293. [Google Scholar]

32. Iguchi M., Nakamura K., Tsujino R. Mixing time and fluid flow phenomena in liquids of varying kinematic viscosities agitated by bottom gas injection. Metall. Mat. Trans. 1998;29:569–575. doi: 10.1007/s11663-998-0091-1. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

33. Hjelle O., Engh T.A., Rasch B. Removal of Sodium from Aluminiummagnesium Alloys by Purging with Cl₂. Aluminium-Verlag GmbH; Dusseldorf, Germany: 1985. pp. 343–360. [Google Scholar]

34. Zhang L., Taniguchi S. Fundamentals of inclusion removal from liquid steel by bubble flotation. Int. Mat. Rev. 2000;45:59–82. doi: 10.1179/095066000101528313. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

원문 보기

Figure 4.24 - Model with virtual valves in the extremities of the geometries to simulate the permeability of the mold promoting a more uniformed filling

Optimization of filling systems for low pressure by Flow-3D

Dissertação de Mestrado
Ciclo de Estudos Integrados Conducentes ao
Grau de Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica
Trabalho efectuado sob a orientação do
Doutor Hélder de Jesus Fernades Puga
Professor Doutor José Joaquim Carneiro Barbosa

ABSTRACT

논문의 일부로 튜터 선택 가능성과 해결해야 할 주제가 설정되는 매개변수를 염두에 두고 개발 주제 ‘Flow- 3D ®에 의한 저압 충전 시스템 최적화’가 선택되었습니다. 이를 위해서는 달성해야 할 목표와 이를 달성하기 위한 방법을 정의하는 것이 필요했습니다.

충전 시스템을 시뮬레이션하고 검증할 수 있는 광범위한 소프트웨어에도 불구하고 Flow-3D®는 시장에서 최고의 도구 중 하나로 표시되어 전체 충전 프로세스 및 행동 표현과 관련하여 탁월한 정확도로 시뮬레이션하는 능력을 입증했습니다.

이를 위해 관련 프로세스를 더 잘 이해하고 충진 시스템 시뮬레이션을 위한 탐색적 기반 역할을 하기 위해 이 도구를 탐색하는 것이 중요합니다. 지연 및 재료 낭비에 반영되는 실제적인 측면에서 충전 장치의 치수를 완벽하게 만드는 비용 및 시간 낭비. 이러한 방식으로 저압 주조 공정에서 충진 시스템을 설계하고 물리적 모델을 탐색하여 특성화하는 방법론을 검증하기 위한 것입니다.

이를 위해 다음 주요 단계를 고려하십시오.

시뮬레이션 소프트웨어 Flow 3D® 탐색;
충전 시스템 모델링;
모델의 매개변수를 탐색하여 모델링된 시스템의 시뮬레이션, 검증 및 최적화.

따라서 연구 중인 압력 곡선과 주조 분석에서 가장 관련성이 높은 정보의 최종 마이닝을 검증하기 위한 것입니다.

사용된 압력 곡선은 수집된 문헌과 이전에 수행된 실제 작업을 통해 얻었습니다. 결과를 통해 3단계 압력 곡선이 층류 충진 체계의 의도된 목적과 관련 속도가 0.5 𝑚/𝑠를 초과하지 않는다는 결론을 내릴 수 있었습니다.

충전 수준이 2인 압력 곡선은 0.5 𝑚/𝑠 이상의 속도로 영역을 채우는 더 난류 시스템을 갖습니다. 열전달 매개변수는 이전에 얻은 값이 주물에 대한 소산 거동을 확증하지 않았기 때문에 연구되었습니다.

이러한 방식으로 주조 공정에 더 부합하는 새로운 가치를 얻었습니다. 달성된 결과는 유사한 것으로 나타난 NovaFlow & Solid®에 의해 생성된 결과와 비교되어 시뮬레이션에서 설정된 매개변수를 검증했습니다. Flow 3D®는 주조 부품 시뮬레이션을 위한 강력한 도구로 입증되었습니다.

As part of the dissertation and bearing in mind the parameters in which the possibility of a choice of tutor and the subject to be addressed is established, the subject for development ’Optimization of filling systems for low pressure by Flow 3D ®’ was chosen. For this it was necessary to define the objectives to achieve and the methods to attain them. Despite the wide range of software able to simulate and validate filling systems, Flow 3D® has been shown as one of the best tools in the market, demonstrating its ability to simulate with distinctive accuracy with respect to the entire process of filling and the behavioral representation of the fluid obtained. To this end, it is important to explore this tool for a better understanding of the processes involved and to serve as an exploratory basis for the simulation of filling systems, simulation being one of the great strengths of the current industry due to the need to reduce costs and time waste, in practical terms, that lead to the perfecting of the dimensioning of filling devices, which are reflected in delays and wasted material. In this way it is intended to validate the methodology to design a filling system in lowpressure casting process, exploring their physical models and thus allowing for its characterization. For this, consider the following main phases: The exploration of the simulation software Flow 3D®; modeling of filling systems; simulation, validation and optimization of systems modeled by exploring the parameters of the models. Therefore, it is intended to validate the pressure curves under study and the eventual mining of the most relevant information in a casting analysis. The pressure curves that were used were obtained through the gathered literature and the practical work previously performed. Through the results it was possible to conclude that the pressure curve with 3 levels meets the intended purpose of a laminar filling regime and associated speeds never exceeding 0.5 𝑚/𝑠. The pressure curve with 2 filling levels has a more turbulent system, having filling areas with velocities above 0.5 𝑚/𝑠. The heat transfer parameter was studied due to the values previously obtained didn’t corroborate the behavior of dissipation regarding to the casting. In this way, new values, more in tune with the casting process, were obtained. The achieved results were compared with those generated by NovaFlow & Solid®, which were shown to be similar, validating the parameters established in the simulations. Flow 3D® was proven a powerful tool for the simulation of casting parts.

키워드

저압, Flow 3D®, 시뮬레이션, 파운드리, 압력-시간 관계,Low Pressure, Flow 3D®, Simulation, Foundry, Pressure-time relation

Figure 4.39 - Values of temperature contours using full energy heat transfer parameter for simula — Figure 4.39 – Values of temperature contours using full energy heat transfer parameter for simula

Figure 4.40 – Comparison between software simulations (a) Flow 3D® simulation,
(b) NovaFlow & Solid® simulation — Figure 4.40 – Comparison between software simulations (a) Flow 3D® simulation, (b) NovaFlow & Solid® simulation

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] E. Stanley and D. B. Sc, “Fluid Flow Aspects of Solidification Modelling : Simulation
of Low Pressure Die Casting .”
[2] Y. Sahin, “Computer aided foundry die-design,” Metallography, vol. 24, no. 8, pp.
671–679, 2003.
[3] F. Bonollo, J. Urban, B. Bonatto, and M. Botter, “Gravity and low pressure die casting
of aluminium alloys : a technical and economical benchmark,” La Metall. Ital., vol. 97,
no. 6, pp. 23–32, 2005.
[4] P. a and R. R, “Study of the effect of process parameters on the production of a nonsimmetric low pressure die casting part,” La Metall. Ital., pp. 57–63, 2009.
[5] “Fundição em baixa pressão | Aluinfo.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.aluinfo.com.br/novo/materiais/fundicao-em-baixa-pressao. [Accessed: 18-
Sep-2015].
[6] “Low Pressure Sand Casting by Wolverine Bronze.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.wolverinebronze.com/low-pressure-sand-casting.php. [Accessed: 18-Sep2015].
[7] A. Reikher, “Numerical Analysis of Die-Casting Process in Thin Cavities Using
Lubrication Approximation,” no. December, 2012.
[8] P. Fu, A. a. Luo, H. Jiang, L. Peng, Y. Yu, C. Zhai, and A. K. Sachdev, “Low-pressure
die casting of magnesium alloy AM50: Response to process parameters,” J. Mater.
Process. Technol., vol. 205, no. 1–3, pp. 224–234, 2008.
[9] X. Li, Q. Hao, W. Jie, and Y. Zhou, “Development of pressure control system in
counter gravity casting for large thin-walled A357 aluminum alloy components,”
Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 847–851, 2008.
[10] J. a. Hines, “Determination of interfacial heat-transfer boundary conditions in an
aluminum low-pressure permanent mold test casting,” Metall. Mater. Trans. B, vol. 35,
no. 2, pp. 299–311, 2004.
[11] A. Lima, A. Freitas, and P. Magalhães, “Processos de vazamento em moldações
permanentes,” pp. 40–49, 2003.
[12] Y. B. Choi, K. Matsugi, G. Sasaki, K. Arita, and O. Yanagisawa, “Analysis of
Manufacturing Processes for Metal Fiber Reinforced Aluminum Alloy Composite
Fabricated by Low-Pressure Casting,” Mater. Trans., vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 1227–1231,
68
2006.
[13] G. Mi, X. Liu, K. Wang, and H. Fu, “Numerical simulation of low pressure die-casting
aluminum wheel,” China Foundry, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 48–52, 2009.
[14] J. Kuo, F. Hsu, and W. Hwang, “ADVANCED Development of an interactive
simulation system for the determination of the pressure ± time relationship during the
® lling in a low pressure casting process,” vol. 2, pp. 131–145, 2001.
[15] S.-G. Liu, F.-Y. Cao, X.-Y. Zhao, Y.-D. Jia, Z.-L. Ning, and J.-F. Sun, “Characteristics
of mold filling and entrainment of oxide film in low pressure casting of A356 alloy,”
Mater. Sci. Eng. A, vol. 626, pp. 159–164, 2015.
[16] “Casting Training Class – Lecture 10 – Solidification and Shrinkage-Casting.” FLOW3D®.
[17] “UAB Casting Engineering Laboratory.” [Online]. Available:
file:///C:/Users/Jos%C3%A9 Belo/Desktop/Artigo_Software/UAB Casting
Engineering Laboratory.htm. [Accessed: 09-Nov-2015].
[18] A. Louvo, “Casting Simulation as a Tool in Concurrent Engineering,” pp. 1–12, 1997.
[19] T. R. Vijayaram and P. Piccardo, “Computers in Foundries,” vol. 30, 2012.
[20] M. Sadaiah, D. R. Yadav, P. V. Mohanram, and P. Radhakrishnan, “A generative
computer-aided process planning system for prismatic components,” Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol., vol. 20, no. 10, pp. 709–719, 2002.
[21] Ministry_of_Planning, “Digital Data,” vol. 67, pp. 1–6, 2004.
[22] S. Shamasundar, D. Ramachandran, and N. S. Shrinivasan, “COMPUTER
SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF INVESTMENTCASTING PROCESS.”
[23] J. M. Siqueira and G. Motors, “Simulation applied to Aluminum High Pressure Die
Casting,” pp. 1–5, 1998.
[24] C. Fluid, COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS. Abdulnaser Sayma & Ventus
Publishing ApS, 2009.
[25] C. a. Felippa, “1 – Overview,” Adv. Finite Elem. Methods, pp. 1–9.
[26] a. Meena and M. El Mansori, “Correlative thermal methodology for castability
simulation of ductile iron in ADI production,” J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 212,
no. 11, pp. 2484–2495, 2012.
[27] T. R. Vijayaram, S. Sulaiman, a. M. S. Hamouda, and M. H. M. Ahmad, “Numerical
simulation of casting solidification in permanent metallic molds,” J. Mater. Process.
69
Technol., vol. 178, pp. 29–33, 2006.
[28] “General CFD FAQ — CFD-Wiki, the free CFD reference.” [Online]. Available:
http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/General_CFD_FAQ. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2015].
[29] “FEM | FEA | CFD.” [Online]. Available: http://fem4analyze.blogspot.pt/. [Accessed:
09-Nov-2015].
[30] “Fundição; revista da Associação portuguesa de fundição,” Fundição, vol. N
o
227.
[31] “Casting Training Class – Lecture 1 – Introduction_to_FLOW-3D – Casting.” FLOW3D®.
[32] F. Science, “FLOW-3D Cast Documentation,” no. 3.5, p. 80, 2012.
[33] “Casting Training Class – Lecture 4 – Geometry Building – General.” FLOW-3D®.
[34] F. Science, “FLOW-3D v11.0.3 User Manual,” pp. 1–132, 2015.
[35] “Casting Training Class – Lecture 5 Meshing Concept – General.” FLOW-3D®.
[36] “Casting Training Class – Lecture 6 – Boundary_Conditions – Casting.” FLOW-3D®.
[37] “Casting Training Class – Lecture 9 – Physical Models-castings.” FLOW-3D®.
[38] P. A. D. Jácome, M. C. Landim, A. Garcia, A. F. Furtado, and I. L. Ferreira, “The
application of computational thermodynamics and a numerical model for the
determination of surface tension and Gibbs–Thomson coefficient of aluminum based
alloys,” Thermochim. Acta, vol. 523, no. 1–2, pp. 142–149, 2011.
[39] J. P. Anson, R. A. L. Drew, and J. E. Gruzleski, “The surface tension of molten
aluminum and Al-Si-Mg alloy under vacuum and hydrogen atmospheres,” Metall.
Mater. Trans. B Process Metall. Mater. Process. Sci., vol. 30, no. 6, pp. XVI–1032,
1999.

원문 보기

3D Flow and Temperature Analysis of Filling a Plutonium Mold

플루토늄 주형 충전의 3D 유동 및 온도 분석

Authors: Orenstein, Nicholas P. [1]

Publication Date:2013-07-24
Research Org.: Los Alamos National Lab. (LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States)
Sponsoring Org.: DOE/LANL
OSTI Identifier: 1088904
Report Number(s): LA-UR-13-25537
DOE Contract Number: AC52-06NA25396
Resource Type: Technical Report
Country of Publication: United States
Language: English
Subject: Engineering(42); Materials Science(36); Radiation Chemistry, Radiochemistry, & Nuclear Chemistry(38)

Introduction

The plutonium foundry at Los Alamos National Laboratory casts products for various special nuclear applications. However, plutonium’s radioactivity, material properties, and security constraints complicate the ability to perform experimental analysis of mold behavior. The Manufacturing Engineering and Technologies (MET-2) group previously developed a graphite mold to vacuum cast small plutonium disks to be used by the Department of Homeland Security as point sources for radiation sensor testing.

A two-stage pouring basin consisting of a funnel and an angled cavity directs the liquid into a vertical runner. A stack of ten disk castings connect to the runner by horizontal gates. Volumetric flow rates were implemented to limit overflow into the funnel and minimize foundry returns. Models using Flow-3D computational fluid dynamics software are employed here to determine liquid Pu flow paths, optimal pour regimes, temperature changes, and pressure variations.

Setup

Hardcopy drawings provided necessary information to create 3D .stl models for import into Flow-3D (Figs. 1 and 2). The mesh was refined over several iterations to isolate the disk cavities, runner, angled cavity, funnel, and input pour. The final flow and mold-filling simulation utilizes a fine mesh with ~5.5 million total cells. For the temperature study, the mesh contained 1/8 as many cells to reduce computational time and set temperatures to 850 °C for the molten plutonium and 500 °C for the solid graphite mold components (Fig. 3).

Flow-3D solves mass continuity and Navier-Stokes momentum equations over the structured rectangular grid model using finite difference and finite volume numerical algorithms. The solver includes terms in the momentum equation for body and viscous accelerations and uses convective heat transfer.

Simulation settings enabled Flow-3D physics calculations for gravity at 980.665 cm/s 2 in the negative Z direction (top of mold to bottom); viscous, turbulent, incompressible flow using dynamically-computed Renormalized Group Model turbulence calculations and no-slip/partial slip wall shear, and; first order, full energy equation heat transfer.

Mesh boundaries were all set to symmetric boundary conditions except for the Zmin boundary set to outflow and the Zmax boundary set to a volume flow. Vacuum casting conditions and the high reactivity of remaining air molecules with Pu validate the assumption of an initially fluidless void.

Results

The flow follows a unique three-dimensional path. The mold fills upwards with two to three disks receiving fluid in a staggered sequence. Figures 5-9 show how the fluid fills the cavity, and Figure 7 includes the color scale for pressure levels in these four figures. The narrow gate causes a high pressure region which forces the fluid to flow down the cavity centerline.

It proceeds to splash against the far wall and then wrap around the circumference back to the gate (Figs. 5 and 6). Flow in the angled region of the pouring basin cascades over the bottom ledge and attaches to the far wall of the runner, as seen in Figure 7.

This channeling becomes less pronounced as fluid volume levels increase. Finally, two similar but non-uniform depressed regions form about the centerline. These regions fill from their perimeter and bottom until completion (Fig. 8). Such a pattern is counter, for example, to a steady scenario in which a circle of molten Pu encompassing the entire bottom surface rises as a growing cylinder.

Cavity pressure becomes uniform when the cavity is full. Pressure levels build in the rising well section of the runner, where impurities were found to settle in actual casting. Early test simulations optimized the flow as three pours so that the fluid would never overflow to the funnel, the cavities would all fill completely, and small amounts of fluid would remain as foundry returns in the angled cavity.

These rates and durations were translated to the single 2.7s pour at 100 cm 3 per second used here. Figure 9 shows anomalous pressure fluctuations which occurred as the cavities became completely filled. Multiple simulations exhibited a rapid change in pressure from positive to negative and back within the newly-full disk and surrounding, already-full disks.

The time required to completely fill each cavity is plotted in Figure 10. Results show negligible temperature change within the molten Pu during mold filling and, as seen in Figure 11, at fill completion.

Figure 5: Bottom cavity filling
from runner — Figure 5: Bottom cavity filling from runner

Figure 8: Edge detection of cavity fill geometry. Two similar depressed areas form
about the centerline. Top cavity shown; same pressure scale as other figures — Figure 8: Edge detection of cavity fill geometry. Two similar depressed areas form about the centerline. Top cavity shown; same pressure scale as other figures

Figure 10: Cavity fill times,from first fluid contact with pouring basin, Figure 11:Fluid temperature remains essentially constant

Conclusions

Non-uniform cavity filling could cause crystal microstructure irregularities during solidification. However, the small temperature changes seen – due to large differences in specific heat between Pu and graphite – over a relatively short time make such problems unlikely in this case.

In the actual casting, cooling required approximately ten minutes. This large difference in time scales further reduces the chance for temperature effects in such a superheated scenario. Pouring basin emptying decreases pressure at the gate which extends fill time of the top two cavities.

The bottom cavity takes longer to fill because fluid must first enter the runner and fill the well. Fill times continue linearly until the top two cavities. The anomalous pressure fluctuations may be due to physical attempts by the system to reach equilibrium, but they are more likely due to numerical errors in the Flow3D solver.

Unsuccessful tests were performed to remove them by halving fluid viscosity. The fine mesh reduced, but did not eliminate, the extent of the fluctuations. Future work is planned to study induction and heat transfer in the full Pu furnace system, including quantifying temporal lag of the cavity void temperature to the mold wall temperature during pre-heat and comparing heat flux levels between furnace components during cool-down.

Thanks to Doug Kautz for the opportunity to work with MET-2 and for assigning an interesting unclassified project. Additional thanks to Mike Bange for CFD guidance, insight of the project’s history, and draft review.

원본 보기

액체-수소 탱크를 위한 결합된 열역학-유체-역학 솔루션

Coupled thermodynamic-fluid-dynamic solution for a liquid-hydrogen tank

G. D. Grayson

Published Online:23 May 2012 https://doi.org/10.2514/3.26706

Read Now

Tools Share

Introduction

ROPELLANT 열 성층화 및 외부 교란에 대한 유체 역학적 반응은 발사체와 우주선 모두에서 중요합니다. 과거에는 결합된 솔루션을 제공할 수 있는 충분한 계산 기술이 부족하여 이러한 문제를 개별적으로 해결했습니다.1

이로 인해 모델링 기술의 불확실성을 허용하기 위해 큰 안전 계수를 가진 시스템이 과도하게 설계되었습니다. 고중력 환경과 저중력 환경 모두에서 작동하도록 설계된 미래 시스템은 기술적으로나 재정적으로 실현 가능하도록 과잉 설계 및 안전 요소가 덜 필요합니다.

이러한 유체 시스템은 열역학 및 유체 역학이 모두 중요한 환경에서 모델의 기능을 광범위하게 검증한 후에만 고충실도 수치 모델을 기반으로 할 수 있습니다. 상용 컴퓨터 코드 FLOW-3D2는 유체 역학 및 열 모델링 모두에서 가능성을 보여주었으며,1 따라서 열역학-유체-역학 엔지니어링 문제에서 결합된 질량, 운동량 및 에너지 방정식을 푸는 데 적합함을 시사합니다.

발사체의 복잡한 액체 가스 시스템에 대한 포괄적인 솔루션을 달성하기 위한 첫 번째 단계로 액체 유체 역학과 열역학을 통합하는 제안된 상단 단계 액체-수소(Lit) 탱크의 간단한 모델이 여기에 제시됩니다. FLOW-3D FLOW-3D 프로그램은 Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory에서 시작되었으며 마커 및 셀 방법에서 파생된 것입니다.3 현재 상태로 가져오기 위해 수년에 걸쳐 광범위한 코드 수정이 이루어졌습니다.2

프로그램은 다음과 같습니다. 일반 Navier-Stokes 방정식을 풀기 위해 수치 근사의 중앙 유한 차분 방법을 사용하는 3차원 유체 역학 솔버입니다. 모멘텀 및 에너지 방정식의 섹션은 특정 응용 프로그램에 따라 활성화 또는 비활성화할 수 있습니다.

코드는 1994년 9월 13일 접수를 인용하기 위해 무액체 표면, 복잡한 용기 기하학, 여러 점성 모델, 표면 장력, 다공성 매체를 통한 흐름 및 응고와 함께 압축성 또는 비압축성 유동 가정을 제공합니다. 1995년 1월 15일에 받은 개정; 1995년 2월 17일 출판 승인.

ROPELLANT thermal stratification and fluid-dynamic response to external disturbances are of concern in both launch vehicles and spacecraft. In the past these problems have been addressed separately for want of sufficient computational technology to provide for coupled solutions.1 This has resulted in overdesigned systems with large safety factors to allow for the uncertainty in modeling techniques. Future systems designed to perform in both highand low-gravity environments will require less overdesign and safety factors to be technically and financially feasible. Such fluid systems can be based on high-fidelity numerical models only after extensive validation of the models’ capabilities in environments where both the thermodynamics and the fluid dynamics are important. The commercial computer code FLOW-3D2 has shown promise in both fluid-dynamic and thermal modeling,1 thus suggesting suitability for solving the coupled mass, momentum, and energy equations in thermodynamic-fluid-dynamic engineering problems. As a first step to achieving a comprehensive solution for complex liquidgas systems in a launch vehicle, a simple model of a proposed upper-stage liquid-hydrogen (Lit) tank incorporating the liquid fluid dynamics and thermodynamics is presented here. FLOW-3D The FLOW-3D program originated at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and is a derivative of the marker-and-cell method.3 Extensive code modifications have been made over the years to bring it to its present state.2 The program is a three-dimensional fluiddynamic solver that uses a central finite-difference method of numerical approximation to solve the general Navier-Stokes equations. Sections of the momentum and energy equations can be enabled or disabled depending on the particular application. The code provides compressible or incompressible flow assumptions with liquid free surfaces, complex container geometries, several viscosity models, surface tension, flow though porous media, and solidification, to cite Received Sept. 13, 1994; revision received Jan. 15, 1995; accepted for publication Feb. 17, 1995. Copyright © 1995 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved. *Engineer/Scientist, Propulsion Analysis and Hydraulics, Space Transportation Division, MS 13-3, 5301 Bolsa Avenue. Member AIAA. a few of the possibilities. Further information on FLOW-3D’s capabilities and details of the numerical algorithms can be found in Ref. 2

DOI 바로가기

원문 바로보기

영국 Dawlish의 방파제에 대한 온대 저기압 피해: 목격자 설명, 해수면 분석 및 수치 모델링

Extratropical cyclone damage to the seawall in Dawlish, UK: eyewitness accounts, sea level analysis and numerical modelling

Natural Hazards (2022)Cite this article

152 Accesses
3 Altmetric
Metricsdetails

Abstract

2014년 2월 영국 해협(영국)과 특히 Dawlish에 영향을 미친 온대 저기압 폭풍 사슬은 남서부 지역과 영국의 나머지 지역을 연결하는 주요 철도에 심각한 피해를 입혔습니다.

이 사건으로 라인이 두 달 동안 폐쇄되어 5천만 파운드의 피해와 12억 파운드의 경제적 손실이 발생했습니다. 이 연구에서는 폭풍의 파괴력을 해독하기 위해 목격자 계정을 수집하고 해수면 데이터를 분석하며 수치 모델링을 수행합니다.

우리의 분석에 따르면 이벤트의 재난 관리는 성공적이고 효율적이었으며 폭풍 전과 도중에 인명과 재산을 구하기 위해 즉각적인 조치를 취했습니다. 파도 부이 분석에 따르면 주기가 4–8, 8–12 및 20–25초인 복잡한 삼중 봉우리 바다 상태가 존재하는 반면, 조위계 기록에 따르면 최대 0.8m의 상당한 파도와 최대 1.5m의 파도 성분이 나타났습니다.

이벤트에서 가능한 기여 요인으로 결합된 진폭. 최대 286 KN의 상당한 임펄스 파동이 손상의 시작 원인일 가능성이 가장 높았습니다. 수직 벽의 반사는 파동 진폭의 보강 간섭을 일으켜 파고가 증가하고 최대 16.1m3/s/m(벽의 미터 너비당)의 상당한 오버탑핑을 초래했습니다.

이 정보와 우리의 공학적 판단을 통해 우리는 이 사고 동안 다중 위험 계단식 실패의 가장 가능성 있는 순서는 다음과 같다고 결론을 내립니다. 조적 파괴로 이어지는 파도 충격력, 충전물 손실 및 연속적인 조수에 따른 구조물 파괴.

The February 2014 extratropical cyclonic storm chain, which impacted the English Channel (UK) and Dawlish in particular, caused significant damage to the main railway connecting the south-west region to the rest of the UK. The incident caused the line to be closed for two months, £50 million of damage and an estimated £1.2bn of economic loss. In this study, we collate eyewitness accounts, analyse sea level data and conduct numerical modelling in order to decipher the destructive forces of the storm. Our analysis reveals that the disaster management of the event was successful and efficient with immediate actions taken to save lives and property before and during the storm. Wave buoy analysis showed that a complex triple peak sea state with periods at 4–8, 8–12 and 20–25 s was present, while tide gauge records indicated that significant surge of up to 0.8 m and wave components of up to 1.5 m amplitude combined as likely contributing factors in the event. Significant impulsive wave force of up to 286 KN was the most likely initiating cause of the damage. Reflections off the vertical wall caused constructive interference of the wave amplitudes that led to increased wave height and significant overtopping of up to 16.1 m³/s/m (per metre width of wall). With this information and our engineering judgement, we conclude that the most probable sequence of multi-hazard cascading failure during this incident was: wave impact force leading to masonry failure, loss of infill and failure of the structure following successive tides.

Introduction

The progress of climate change and increasing sea levels has started to have wide ranging effects on critical engineering infrastructure (Shakou et al. 2019). The meteorological effects of increased atmospheric instability linked to warming seas mean we may be experiencing more frequent extreme storm events and more frequent series or chains of events, as well as an increase in the force of these events, a phenomenon called storminess (Mölter et al. 2016; Feser et al. 2014). Features of more extreme weather events in extratropical latitudes (30°–60°, north and south of the equator) include increased gusting winds, more frequent storm squalls, increased prolonged precipitation and rapid changes in atmospheric pressure and more frequent and significant storm surges (Dacre and Pinto 2020). A recent example of these events impacting the UK with simultaneous significant damage to coastal infrastructure was the extratropical cyclonic storm chain of winter 2013/2014 (Masselink et al. 2016; Adams and Heidarzadeh 2021). The cluster of storms had a profound effect on both coastal and inland infrastructure, bringing widespread flooding events and large insurance claims (RMS 2014).

The extreme storms of February 2014, which had a catastrophic effect on the seawall of the south Devon stretch of the UK’s south-west mainline, caused a two-month closure of the line and significant disruption to the local and regional economy (Fig. 1b) (Network Rail 2014; Dawson et al. 2016; Adams and Heidarzadeh 2021). Restoration costs were £35 m, and economic effects to the south-west region of England were estimated up to £1.2bn (Peninsula Rail Taskforce 2016). Adams and Heidarzadeh (2021) investigated the disparate cascading failure mechanisms which played a part in the failure of the railway through Dawlish and attempted to put these in the context of the historical records of infrastructure damage on the line. Subsequent severe storms in 2016 in the region have continued to cause damage and disruption to the line in the years since 2014 (Met Office 2016). Following the events of 2014, Network Rail ^Footnote1 who owns the network has undertaken a resilience study. As a result, it has proposed a £400 m refurbishment of the civil engineering assets that support the railway (Fig. 1) (Network Rail 2014). The new seawall structure (Fig. 1a,c), which is constructed of pre-cast concrete sections, encases the existing Brunel seawall (named after the project lead engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel) and has been improved with piled reinforced concrete foundations. It is now over 2 m taller to increase the available crest freeboard and incorporates wave return features to minimise wave overtopping. The project aims to increase both the resilience of the assets to extreme weather events as well as maintain or improve amenity value of the coastline for residents and visitors.

In this work, we return to the Brunel seawall and the damage it sustained during the 2014 storms which affected the assets on the evening of the 4th and daytime of the 5th of February and eventually resulted in a prolonged closure of the line. The motivation for this research is to analyse and model the damage made to the seawall and explain the damage mechanisms in order to improve the resilience of many similar coastal structures in the UK and worldwide. The innovation of this work is the multidisciplinary approach that we take comprising a combination of analysis of eyewitness accounts (social science), sea level and wave data analysis (physical science) as well as numerical modelling and engineering judgement (engineering sciences). We investigate the contemporary wave climate and sea levels by interrogating the real-time tide gauge and wave buoys installed along the south-west coast of the English Channel. We then model a typical masonry seawall (Fig. 2), applying the computational fluid dynamics package FLOW3D-Hydro,^Footnote2 to quantify the magnitude of impact forces that the seawall would have experienced leading to its failure. We triangulate this information to determine the probable sequence of failures that led to the disaster in 2014.

Data and methods

Our data comprise eyewitness accounts, sea level records from coastal tide gauges and offshore wave buoys as well as structural details of the seawall. As for methodology, we analyse eyewitness data, process and investigate sea level records through Fourier transform and conduct numerical simulations using the Flow3D-Hydro package (Flow Science 2022). Details of the data and methodology are provided in the following.

Eyewitness data

The scale of damage to the seawall and its effects led the local community to document the first-hand accounts of those most closely affected by the storms including residents, local businesses, emergency responders, politicians and engineering contractors involved in the post-storm restoration work. These records now form a permanent exhibition in the local museum in Dawlish^Footnote3, and some of these accounts have been transcribed into a DVD account of the disaster (Dawlish Museum 2015). We have gathered data from the Dawlish Museum, national and international news reports, social media tweets and videos. Table 1 provides a summary of the eyewitness accounts. Overall, 26 entries have been collected around the time of the incident. Our analysis of the eyewitness data is provided in the third column of Table 1 and is expanded in Sect. 3.Table 1 Eyewitness accounts of damage to the Dawlish railway due to the February 2014 storm and our interpretations

Full size table

Sea level data and wave environment

Our sea level data are a collection of three tide gauge stations (Newlyn, Devonport and Swanage Pier—Fig. 5a) owned and operated by the UK National Tide and Sea Level Facility^Footnote4 for the Environment Agency and four offshore wave buoys (Dawlish, West Bay, Torbay and Chesil Beach—Fig. 6a). The tide gauge sites are all fitted with POL-EKO (www.pol-eko.com.pl) data loggers. Newlyn has a Munro float gauge with one full tide and one mid-tide pneumatic bubbler system. Devonport has a three-channel data pneumatic bubbler system, and Swanage Pier consists of a pneumatic gauge. Each has a sampling interval of 15 min, except for Swanage Pier which has a sampling interval of 10 min. The tide gauges are located within the port areas, whereas the offshore wave buoys are situated approximately 2—3.3 km from the coast at water depths of 10–15 m. The wave buoys are all Datawell Wavemaker Mk III units^Footnote5 and come with sampling interval of 0.78 s. The buoys have a maximum saturation amplitude of 20.5 m for recording the incident waves which implies that every wave larger than this threshold will be recorded at 20.5 m. The data are provided by the British Oceanographic Data Centre^Footnote6 for tide gauges and the Channel Coastal Observatory^Footnote7 for wave buoys.

Sea level analysis

The sea level data underwent quality control to remove outliers and spikes as well as gaps in data (e.g. Heidarzadeh et al. 2022; Heidarzadeh and Satake 2015). We processed the time series of the sea level data using the Matlab signal processing tool (MathWorks 2018). For calculations of the tidal signals, we applied the tidal package TIDALFIT (Grinsted 2008), which is based on fitting tidal harmonics to the observed sea level data. To calculate the surge signals, we applied a 30-min moving average filter to the de-tided data in order to remove all wind, swell and infra-gravity waves from the time series. Based on the surge analysis and the variations of the surge component before the time period of the incident, an error margin of approximately ± 10 cm is identified for our surge analysis. Spectral analysis of the wave buoy data is performed using the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of Matlab package (Mathworks 2018).

Numerical modelling

Numerical modelling of wave-structure interaction is conducted using the computational fluid dynamics package Flow3D-Hydro version 1.1 (Flow Science 2022). Flow3D-Hydro solves the transient Navier–Stokes equations of conservation of mass and momentum using a finite difference method and on Eulerian and Lagrangian frameworks (Flow Science 2022). The aforementioned governing equations are:

∇.u=0∇.u=0

(1)

∂u∂t+u.∇u=−∇Pρ+υ∇2u+g∂u∂t+u.∇u=−∇Pρ+υ∇2u+g

(2)

where uu is the velocity vector, PP is the pressure, ρρ is the water density, υυ is the kinematic viscosity and gg is the gravitational acceleration. A Fractional Area/Volume Obstacle Representation (FAVOR) is adapted in Flow3D-Hydro, which applies solid boundaries within the Eulerian grid and calculates the fraction of areas and volume in partially blocked volume in order to compute flows on corresponding boundaries (Hirt and Nichols 1981). We validated the numerical modelling through comparing the results with Sainflou’s analytical equation for the design of vertical seawalls (Sainflou 1928; Ackhurst 2020), which is as follows:

pd=ρgHcoshk(d+z)coshkdcosσtpd=ρgHcoshk(d+z)coshkdcosσt

(3)

where pdpd is the hydrodynamic pressure, ρρ is the water density, gg is the gravitational acceleration, HH is the wave height, dd is the water depth, kk is the wavenumber, zz is the difference in still water level and mean water level, σσ is the angular frequency and tt is the time. The Sainflou’s equation (Eq. 3) is used to calculate the dynamic pressure from wave action, which is combined with static pressure on the seawall.

Using Flow3D-Hydro, a model of the Dawlish seawall was made with a computational domain which is 250.0 m in length, 15.0 m in height and 0.375 m in width (Fig. 3a). The computational domain was discretised using a single uniform grid with a mesh size of 0.125 m. The model has a wave boundary at the left side of the domain (x-min), an outflow boundary on the right side (x-max), a symmetry boundary at the bottom (z-min) and a wall boundary at the top (z-max). A wall boundary implies that water or waves are unable to pass through the boundary, whereas a symmetry boundary means that the two edges of the boundary are identical and therefore there is no flow through it. The water is considered incompressible in our model. For volume of fluid advection for the wave boundary (i.e. the left-side boundary) in our simulations, we utilised the “Split Lagrangian Method”, which guarantees the best accuracy (Flow Science, 2022).

The stability of the numerical scheme is controlled and maintained through checking the Courant number (CC) as given in the following:

C=VΔtΔxC=VΔtΔx

(4)

where VV is the velocity of the flow, ΔtΔt is the time step and ΔxΔx is the spatial step (i.e. grid size). For stability and convergence of the numerical simulations, the Courant number must be sufficiently below one (Courant et al. 1928). This is maintained by a careful adjustment of the ΔxΔx and ΔtΔt selections. Flow3D-Hydro applies a dynamic Courant number, meaning the program adjusts the value of time step (ΔtΔt) during the simulations to achieve a balance between accuracy of results and speed of simulation. In our simulation, the time step was in the range ΔtΔt = 0.0051—0.051 s.

In order to achieve the most efficient mesh resolution, we varied cell size for five values of ΔxΔx = 0.1 m, 0.125 m, 0.15 m, 0.175 m and 0.20 m. Simulations were performed for all mesh sizes, and the results were compared in terms of convergence, stability and speed of simulation (Fig. 3). A linear wave with an amplitude of 1.5 m and a period of 6 s was used for these optimisation simulations. We considered wave time histories at two gauges A and B and recorded the waves from simulations using different mesh sizes (Fig. 3). Although the results are close (Fig. 3), some limited deviations are observed for larger mesh sizes of 0.20 m and 0.175 m. We therefore selected mesh size of 0.125 m as the optimum, giving an extra safety margin as a conservative solution.

The pressure from the incident waves on the vertical wall is validated in our model by comparing them with the analytical equation of Sainflou (1928), Eq. (3), which is one of the most common set of equations for design of coastal structures (Fig. 4). The model was tested by running a linear wave of period 6 s and wave amplitude of 1.5 m against the wall, with a still water level of 4.5 m. It can be seen that the model results are very close to those from analytical equations of Sainflou (1928), indicating that our numerical model is accurately modelling the wave-structure interaction (Fig. 4).

Eyewitness account analysis

Contemporary reporting of the 4th and 5th February 2014 storms by the main national news outlets in the UK highlights the extreme nature of the events and the significant damage and disruption they were likely to have on the communities of the south-west of England. In interviews, this was reinforced by Network Rail engineers who, even at this early stage, were forecasting remedial engineering works to last for at least 6 weeks. One week later, following subsequent storms the cascading nature of the events was obvious. Multiple breaches of the seawall had taken place with up to 35 separate landslide events and significant damage to parapet walls along the coastal route also were reported. Residents of the area reported extreme effects of the storm, one likening it to an earthquake and reporting water ingress through doors windows and even through vertical chimneys (Table 1). This suggests extreme wave overtopping volumes and large wave impact forces. One resident described the structural effects as: “the house was jumping up and down on its footings”.

Disaster management plans were quickly and effectively put into action by the local council, police service and National Rail. A major incident was declared, and decisions regarding evacuation of the residents under threat were taken around 2100 h on the night of 4th February when reports of initial damage to the seawall were received (Table 1). Local hotels were asked to provide short-term refuge to residents while local leisure facilities were prepared to accept residents later that evening. Initial repair work to the railway line was hampered by successive high spring tides and storms in the following days although significant progress was still made when weather conditions permitted (Table 1).

Sea level observations and spectral analysis

The results of surge and wave analyses are presented in Figs. 5 and 6. A surge height of up to 0.8 m was recorded in the examined tide gauge stations (Fig. 5b-d). Two main episodes of high surge heights are identified: the first surge started on 3rd February 2014 at 03:00 (UTC) and lasted until 4th of February 2014 at 00:00; the second event occurred in the period 4th February 2014 15:00 to 5th February 2014 at 17:00 (Fig. 5b-d). These data imply surge durations of 21 h and 26 h for the first and the second events, respectively. Based on the surge data in Fig. 5, we note that the storm event of early February 2014 and the associated surges was a relatively powerful one, which impacted at least 230 km of the south coast of England, from Land’s End to Weymouth, with large surge heights.

Based on wave buoy records, the maximum recorded amplitudes are at least 20.5 m in Dawlish and West Bay, 1.9 m in Tor Bay and 4.9 m in Chesil (Fig. 6a-b). The buoys at Tor Bay and Chesil recorded dual peak period bands of 4–8 and 8–12 s, whereas at Dawlish and West Bay registered triple peak period bands at 4–8, 8–12 and 20–25 s (Fig. 6c, d). It is important to note that the long-period waves at 20–25 s occur with short durations (approximately 2 min) while the waves at the other two bands of 4–8 and 8–12 s appear to be present at all times during the storm event.

The wave component at the period band of 4–8 s can be most likely attributed to normal coastal waves while the one at 8–12 s, which is longer, is most likely the swell component of the storm. Regarding the third component of the waves with long period of 20 -25 s, which occurs with short durations of 2 min, there are two hypotheses; it is either the result of a local (port and harbour) and regional (the Lyme Bay) oscillations (eg. Rabinovich 1997; Heidarzadeh and Satake 2014; Wang et al. 1992), or due to an abnormally long swell. To test the first hypothesis, we consider various water bodies such as Lyme Bay (approximate dimensions of 70 km × 20 km with an average water depth of 30 m; Fig. 6), several local bays (approximate dimensions of 3.6 km × 0.6 km with an average water depth of 6 m) and harbours (approximate dimensions of 0.5 km × 0.5 km with an average water depth of 4 m). Their water depths are based on the online Marine navigation website.^Footnote8 According to Rabinovich (2010), the oscillation modes of a semi-enclosed rectangle basin are given by the following equation:

Tmn=2gd−−√[(m2L)2+(nW)2]−1/2Tmn=2gd[(m2L)2+(nW)2]−1/2

(5)

where TmnTmn is the oscillation period, gg is the gravitational acceleration, dd is the water depth, LL is the length of the basin, WW is the width of the basin, m=1,2,3,…m=1,2,3,… and n=0,1,2,3,…n=0,1,2,3,…; mm and nn are the counters of the different modes. Applying Eq. (5) to the aforementioned water bodies results in oscillation modes of at least 5 min, which is far longer than the observed period of 20–25 s. Therefore, we rule out the first hypothesis and infer that the long period of 20–25 s is most likely a long swell wave coming from distant sources. As discussed by Rabinovich (1997) and Wang et al. (2022), comparison between sea level spectra before and after the incident is a useful method to distinguish the spectrum of the weather event. A visual inspection of Fig. 6 reveals that the forcing at the period band of 20–25 s is non-existent before the incident.

Numerical simulations of wave loading and overtopping

Based on the results of sea level data analyses in the previous section (Fig. 6), we use a dual peak wave spectrum with peak periods of 10.0 s and 25.0 s for numerical simulations because such a wave would be comprised of the most energetic signals of the storm. For variations of water depth (2.0–4.0 m), coastal wave amplitude (0.5–1.5 m) (Fig. 7) and storm surge height (0.5–0.8 m) (Fig. 5), we developed 20 scenarios (Scn) which we used in numerical simulations (Table 2). Data during the incident indicated that water depth was up to the crest level of the seawall (approximately 4 m water depth); therefore, we varied water depth from 2 to 4 m in our simulation scenarios. Regarding wave amplitudes, we referred to the variations at a nearby tide gauge station (West Bay) which showed wave amplitude up to 1.2 m (Fig. 7). Therefore, wave amplitude was varied from 0.5 m to 1.5 m by considering a factor a safety of 25% for the maximum wave amplitude. As for the storm surge component, time series of storm surges calculated at three coastal stations adjacent to Dawlish showed that it was in the range of 0.5 m to 0.8 m (Fig. 5). These 20 scenarios would help to study uncertainties associated with wave amplitudes and pressures. Figure 8 shows snapshots of wave propagation and impacts on the seawall at different times.

Table 2 The 20 scenarios considered for numerical simulations in this study

Full size table

Results of wave amplitude simulations

Large wave amplitudes can induce significant wave forcing on the structure and cause overtopping of the seawall, which could eventually cascade to other hazards such as erosion of the backfill and scour (Adams and Heidarzadeh, 2021). The first 10 scenarios of our modelling efforts are for the same incident wave amplitudes of 0.5 m, which occur at different water depths (2.0–4.0 m) and storm surge heights (0.5–0.8 m) (Table 2 and Fig. 9). This is because we aim at studying the impacts of effective water depth (d_eff—the sum of mean sea level and surge height) on the time histories of wave amplitudes as the storm evolves. As seen in Fig. 9a, by decreasing effective water depth, wave amplitude increases. For example, for Scn-1 with effective depth of 4.5 m, the maximum amplitude of the first wave is 1.6 m, whereas it is 2.9 m for Scn-2 with effective depth of 3.5 m. However, due to intensive reflections and interferences of the waves in front of the vertical seawall, such a relationship is barely seen for the second and the third wave peaks. It is important to note that the later peaks (second or third) produce the largest waves rather than the first wave. Extraordinary wave amplifications are seen for the Scn-2 (d_eff = 3.5 m) and Scn-7 (d_eff = 3.3 m), where the corresponding wave amplitudes are 4.5 m and 3.7 m, respectively. This may indicate that the effective water depth of d_eff = 3.3–3.5 m is possibly a critical water depth for this structure resulting in maximum wave amplitudes under similar storms. In the second wave impact, the combined wave height (i.e. the wave amplitude plus the effective water depth), which is ultimately an indicator of wave overtopping, shows that the largest wave heights are generated by Scn-2, 7 and 8 (Fig. 9a) with effective water depths of 3.5 m, 3.3 m and 3.8 m and combined heights of 8.0 m, 7.0 m and 6.9 m (Fig. 9b). Since the height of seawall is 5.4 m, the combined wave heights for Scn-2, 7 and 8 are greater than the crest height of the seawall by 2.6 m, 1.6 m and 1.5 m, respectively, which indicates wave overtopping.

For scenarios 11–20 (Fig. 10), with incident wave amplitudes of 1.5 m (Table 2), the largest wave amplitudes are produced by Scn-17 (d_eff = 3.3 m), Scn-13 (d_eff = 2.5 m) and Scn-12 (d_eff = 3.5 m), which are 5.6 m, 5.1 m and 4.5 m. The maximum combined wave heights belong to Scn-11 (d_eff = 4.5 m) and Scn-17 (d_eff = 3.3 m), with combined wave heights of 9.0 m and 8.9 m (Fig. 10b), which are greater than the crest height of the seawall by 4.6 m and 3.5 m, respectively.

Our simulations for all 20 scenarios reveal that the first wave is not always the largest and wave interactions, reflections and interferences play major roles in amplifying the waves in front of the seawall. This is primarily because the wall is fully vertical and therefore has a reflection coefficient of close to one (i.e. full reflection). Simulations show that the combined wave height is up to 4.6 m higher than the crest height of the wall, implying that severe overtopping would be expected.

Results of wave loading calculations

The pressure calculations for scenarios 1–10 are given in Fig. 11 and those of scenarios 11–20 in Fig. 12. The total pressure distribution in Figs. 11, 12 mostly follows a triangular shape with maximum pressure at the seafloor as expected from the Sainflou (1928) design equations. These pressure plots comprise both static (due to mean sea level in front of the wall) and dynamic (combined effects of surge and wave) pressures. For incident wave amplitudes of 0.5 m (Fig. 11), the maximum wave pressure varies in the range of 35–63 kPa. At the sea surface, it is in the range of 4–20 kPa (Fig. 11). For some scenarios (Scn-2 and 7), the pressure distribution deviates from a triangular shape and shows larger pressures at the top, which is attributed to the wave impacts and partial breaking at the sea surface. This adds an additional triangle-shaped pressure distribution at the sea surface elevation consistent with the design procedure developed by Goda (2000) for braking waves. The maximum force on the seawall due to scenarios 1–10, which is calculated by integrating the maximum pressure distribution over the wave-facing surface of the seawall, is in the range of 92–190 KN (Table 2).

For scenarios 11–20, with incident wave amplitude of 1.5 m, wave pressures of 45–78 kPa and 7–120 kPa, for the bottom and top of the wall, respectively, were observed (Fig. 12). Most of the plots show a triangular pressure distribution, except for Scn-11 and 15. A significant increase in wave impact pressure is seen for Scn-15 at the top of the structure, where a maximum pressure of approximately 120 kPa is produced while other scenarios give a pressure of 7–32 kPa for the sea surface. In other words, the pressure from Scn-15 is approximately four times larger than the other scenarios. Such a significant increase of the pressure at the top is most likely attributed to the breaking wave impact loads as detailed by Goda (2000) and Cuomo et al. (2010). The wave simulation snapshots in Fig. 8 show that the wave breaks before reaching the wall. The maximum force due to scenarios 11–20 is 120–286 KN.

The breaking wave impacts peaking at 286 KN in our simulations suggest destabilisation of the upper masonry blocks, probably by grout malfunction. This significant impact force initiated the failure of the seawall which in turn caused extensive ballast erosion. Wave impact damage was proposed by Adams and Heidarzadeh (2021) as one of the primary mechanisms in the 2014 Dawlish disaster. In the multi-hazard risk model proposed by these authors, damage mechanism III (failure pathway 5 in Adams and Heidarzadeh, 2021) was characterised by wave impact force causing damage to the masonry elements, leading to failure of the upper sections of the seawall and loss of infill material. As blocks were removed, access to the track bed was increased for inbound waves allowing infill material from behind the seawall to be fluidised and subsequently removed by backwash. The loss of infill material critically compromised the stability of the seawall and directly led to structural failure. In parallel, significant wave overtopping (discussed in the next section) led to ballast washout and cascaded, in combination with masonry damage, to catastrophic failure of the wall and suspension of the rails in mid-air (Fig. 1b), leaving the railway inoperable for two months.

Wave Overtopping

The two most important factors contributing to the 2014 Dawlish railway catastrophe were wave impact forces and overtopping. Figure 13 gives the instantaneous overtopping rates for different scenarios, which experienced overtopping. It can be seen that the overtopping rates range from 0.5 m³/s/m to 16.1 m³/s/m (Fig. 13). Time histories of the wave overtopping rates show that the phenomenon occurs intermittently, and each time lasts 1.0–7.0 s. It is clear that the longer the overtopping time, the larger the volume of the water poured on the structure. The largest wave overtopping rates of 16.1 m³/s/m and 14.4 m³/s/m belong to Scn-20 and 11, respectively. These are the two scenarios that also give the largest combined wave heights (Fig. 10b).

The cumulative overtopping curves (Figs. 14, 15) show the total water volume overtopped the structure during the entire simulation time. This is an important hazard factor as it determines the level of soil saturation, water pore pressure in the soil and soil erosion (Van der Meer et al. 2018). The maximum volume belongs to Scn-20, which is 65.0 m³/m (m-cubed of water per metre length of the wall). The overtopping volumes are 42.7 m³/m for Scn-11 and 28.8 m³/m for Scn-19. The overtopping volume is in the range of 0.7–65.0 m³/m for all scenarios.

For comparison, we compare our modelling results with those estimated using empirical equations. For the case of the Dawlish seawall, we apply the equation proposed by Van Der Meer et al. (2018) to estimate wave overtopping rates, based on a set of decision criteria which are the influence of foreshore, vertical wall, possible breaking waves and low freeboard:

qgH3m−−−−√=0.0155(Hmhs)12e(−2.2RcHm)qgHm3=0.0155(Hmhs)12e(−2.2RcHm)

(6)

where qq is the mean overtopping rate per metre length of the seawall (m³/s/m), gg is the acceleration due to gravity, HmHm is the incident wave height at the toe of the structure, RcRc is the wall crest height above mean sea level, hshs is the deep-water significant wave height and e(x)e(x) is the exponential function. It is noted that Eq. (6) is valid for 0.1<RcHm<1.350.1<RcHm<1.35. For the case of the Dawlish seawall and considering the scenarios with larger incident wave amplitude of 1.5 m (hshs= 1.5 m), the incident wave height at the toe of the structure is HmHm = 2.2—5.6 m, and the wall crest height above mean sea level is RcRc = 0.6–2.9 m. As a result, Eq. (6) gives mean overtopping rates up to approximately 2.9 m³/s/m. A visual inspection of simulated overtopping rates in Fig. 13 for Scn 11–20 shows that the mean value of the simulated overtopping rates (Fig. 13) is close to estimates using Eq. (6).

Discussion and conclusions

We applied a combination of eyewitness account analysis, sea level data analysis and numerical modelling in combination with our engineering judgement to explain the damage to the Dawlish railway seawall in February 2014. Main findings are:

Eyewitness data analysis showed that the extreme nature of the event was well forecasted in the hours prior to the storm impact; however, the magnitude of the risks to the structures was not well understood. Multiple hazards were activated simultaneously, and the effects cascaded to amplify the damage. Disaster management was effective, exemplified by the establishment of an emergency rendezvous point and temporary evacuation centre during the storm, indicating a high level of hazard awareness and preparedness.
Based on sea level data analysis, we identified triple peak period bands at 4–8, 8–12 and 20–25 s in the sea level data. Storm surge heights and wave oscillations were up to 0.8 m and 1.5 m, respectively.
Based on the numerical simulations of 20 scenarios with different water depths, incident wave amplitudes, surge heights and peak periods, we found that the wave oscillations at the foot of the seawall result in multiple wave interactions and interferences. Consequently, large wave amplitudes, up to 4.6 m higher than the height of the seawall, were generated and overtopped the wall. Extreme impulsive wave impact forces of up to 286 KN were generated by the waves interacting with the seawall.
We measured maximum wave overtopping rates of 0.5–16.1 m³/s/m for our scenarios. The cumulative overtopping water volumes per metre length of the wall were 0.7–65.0 m³/m.
Analysis of all the evidence combined with our engineering judgement suggests that the most likely initiating cause of the failure was impulsive wave impact forces destabilising one or more grouted joints between adjacent masonry blocks in the wall. Maximum observed pressures of 286 KN in our simulations are four times greater in magnitude than background pressures leading to block removal and initiating failure. Therefore, the sequence of cascading events was :1) impulsive wave impact force causing damage to masonry, 2) failure of the upper sections of the seawall, 3) loss of infill resulting in a reduction of structural strength in the landward direction, 4) ballast washout as wave overtopping and inbound wave activity increased and 5) progressive structural failure following successive tides.

From a risk mitigation point of view, the stability of the seawall in the face of future energetic cyclonic storm events and sea level rise will become a critical factor in protecting the rail network. Mitigation efforts will involve significant infrastructure investment to strengthen the civil engineering assets combined with improved hazard warning systems consisting of meteorological forecasting and real-time wave observations and instrumentation. These efforts must take into account the amenity value of coastal railway infrastructure to local communities and the significant number of tourists who visit every year. In this regard, public awareness and active engagement in the planning and execution of the project will be crucial in order to secure local stakeholder support for the significant infrastructure project that will be required for future resilience.

Notes

https://www.networkrail.co.uk/..
https://www.flow3d.com/products/flow-3d-hydro/.
https://www.devonmuseums.net/Dawlish-Museum/Devon-Museums/.
https://ntslf.org/.
https://www.datawell.nl/Products/Buoys/DirectionalWaveriderMkIII.aspx.
https://www.bodc.ac.uk/.
https://coastalmonitoring.org/cco/.
https://webapp.navionics.com/#boating@8&key=iactHlwfP.

References

Ackhurst M (2020) Design of Vertical Gravity Sea and Quay Walls. ICE Publishing, Westminster, London
Adams K, Heidarzadeh M (2021) A multi-hazard risk model with cascading failure pathways for the Dawlish (UK) railway using historical and contemporary data. Int J Disaster Risk Reduc 56:102082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102082 Article Google Scholar
BBC (2014a) Dawlish train battered by waves. Accessed 12 May 2022. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-26076630
BBC (2014b) Dawlish storm victim: ‘Water coming through our windows’. Accessed 12 May 2022. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-26056696
BBC (2014c) Devon and Cornwall storm: ‘Like living in a washing machine’. Accessed 12 May 2022. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-26051900
Brunel Institute (2022) A collaboration between the University of Bristol and the SS Great Britain. DM162/8/1/3/GWR Sketchbook21/folio 10. Accessed on 22 Feb 2022. https://archives.bristol.ac.uk/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=DM162%2f8%2f1%2f3%2fGWR+Sketchbook+21%2ffolio+10
Courant R, Friedrichs K, Lewy H (1928) Über die partiellen Differenzengleichungen der mathematischen Physik. Math Ann 100(1):32–74Article Google Scholar
Cuomo G, Allsop W, Bruce T, Pearson J (2010) Breaking wave loads at vertical seawalls and breakwaters. Coastal Eng 57(4):424–439Article Google Scholar
Dacre HF, Pinto JG (2020) Serial clustering of extratropical cyclones: a review of where, when and why it occurs. Clim Atmos Sci 3:48. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-020-00152-9 Article Google Scholar
Dawlish Museum (2015) Dawlish The Great Storm. Video collection, available on DVD at: https://www.devonmuseums.net/The-Great-Storm-DVD/Dawlish-Museum/View-Product/
Dawson D, Shaw J, Gehrels WR (2016) Sea-level rise impacts on transport infrastructure: the notorious case of the coastal railway line at Dawlish, England. J Transport Geog 51:97–109Article Google Scholar
Feser F, Barcikowska M, Krueger O, Schenk F, Weisse R, Xia L (2015) Storminess over the North Atlantic and northwestern Europe—A review. Quarter J R Meteorol Soc 141:350–382. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2364 Article Google Scholar
Flow Science (2022) FLOW3D-Hydro version 1.0.1.3. Accessed 12 Feb 2022. https://www.flow3d.com/products/flow-3d-hydro/
Goda Y (2000) Random seas and design of maritime structures, vol 33. World Scientific Publishing Company
Grinsted A (2008) Tidal fitting toolbox. Accessed 6 Feb 2022. https://uk.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/19099-tidal-fitting-toolbox?focused=3854016&tab=function&s_tid=gn_loc_drop
Heidarzadeh M, Satake K (2014) Excitation of basin-wide modes of the Pacific Ocean following the march 2011 Tohoku Tsunami. Pure Appl Geophys 171(12):3405–3419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-013-0731-5 Article Google Scholar
Heidarzadeh M, Satake K (2015) Source properties of the 1998 July 17 Papua New Guinea tsunami based on tide gauge records. Geophys J Int 202(1):361–369Article Google Scholar
Heidarzadeh M, Gusman A, Ishibe T, Sabeti R, Šepić J (2022) Estimating the eruption-induced water displacement source of the 15 January 2022 Tonga volcanic tsunami from tsunami spectra and numerical modelling. Ocean Eng 261:112165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.112165 Article Google Scholar
Hirt CW, Nichols BD (1981) Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries. J Comput Phys 39(1):201–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9991(81)90145-5 Article Google Scholar
Masselink G, Castelle B, Scott T, Dodet G, Suanez S, Jackson D, Floc’h F (2016) Extreme wave activity during 2013/2014 winter and morphological impacts along the Atlantic coast of Europe. Geophys Res Lett 43(5):2135–2143. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL067492 Article Google Scholar
Mathworks (2018) MATLAB, 2018. 9.7.0.1190202 (R2019b), Natick, Massachusetts: The MathWorks Inc.
Met Office (2016) Strong winds and flooding from storm Angus. November 2016. Accessed 4 Mar 2022. https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/metofficegovuk/pdf/weather/learn-about/uk-past-events/interesting/2016/strong-winds-and-flooding-from-storm-angus-november-2016—met-office.pdf,
Mölter T, Schindler D, Albrecht AT, Kohnle U (2016) Review on the projections of future storminess over the North Atlantic European Region. Atmosphere 7(4):60. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7040060 Article Google Scholar
Network Rail (2014) West of Exeter Route Resilience Study. Accessed 4 May 2022. https://cdn.networkrail.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/West-of-Exeter-Route-Resilience-Study-1.pdf
Peninsula Rail Taskforce (2016) Closing the gap: The South West Peninsula strategic rail blueprint. Accessed 4 May 2022. https://peninsularailtaskforce.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/prtf-closing-the-gap.pdf
Rabinovich AB (1997) Spectral analysis of tsunami waves: Separation of source and topography effects. J Geophys Res Oceans 102(C6):12663–12676. https://doi.org/10.1029/97JC00479 Article Google Scholar
Rabinovich AB (2010) Seiches and harbor oscillations. In: Handbook of coastal and ocean engineering, pp 193–236
RMS (2014) RMS White Paper 2013–2014 Winter Storms in Europe: An insurance and catastrophe modelling perspective. Accessed 12 May 2022. https://forms2.rms.com/rs/729-DJX-565/images/ws_2013_2014_europe_winter_storms.pdf
Sainflou G (1928) Essai sur les digues maritimes verticales. Annales de ponts et chaussées, vol 98, tome II, 1928(4):5–48. (in French)
Shakou LM, Wybo JL, Reniers G, Boustras G (2019) Developing an innovative framework for enhancing the resilience of critical infrastructure to climate change. Safety Sci 118:364–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.05.019 Article Google Scholar
Van der Meer JW, Allsop NWH, Bruce T, De Rouck J, Kortenhaus A, Pullen T, Schüttrumpf H, Troch P and Zanuttigh B (2018) EurOtop, Manual on wave overtopping of sea defences and related structures. An overtopping manual largely based on European research, but for worldwide application. Available online at: www.overtopping-manual.com.
Wang Y, Su HY, Ren Z, Ma Y (2022) Source properties and resonance characteristics of the tsunami generated by the 2021 M 8.2 Alaska earthquake. J Geophys Res Oceans, 127(3):e2021JC018308. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JC018308 Article Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Brunel University London for administering the scholarship awarded to KA. The Flow3D-Hydro used in this research for numerical modelling is licenced to Brunel University London through an academic programme contract. We sincerely thank Prof Harsh Gupta (Editor-in-Chief) and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive review comments.

Funding

This project was funded by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) through a PhD scholarship to Keith Adams.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UKKeith Adams
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UKMohammad Heidarzadeh

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Keith Adams.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Availability of data

All data used in this study are provided in the body of the article.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Adams, K., Heidarzadeh, M. Extratropical cyclone damage to the seawall in Dawlish, UK: eyewitness accounts, sea level analysis and numerical modelling. Nat Hazards (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05692-2

Download citation

Received17 May 2022
Accepted17 October 2022
Published14 November 2022
DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05692-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable link

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Keywords

Storm surge
Cyclone
Railway
Climate change
Infrastructure
Resilience

원문보기

Propagation of Landslide Surge in Curved River Channel and Its Interaction with Dam

굽은 강둑 산사태의 팽창 전파 및 댐과의 상호 작용, 곡선하천의 산사태 해일 전파 및 댐과의 상호작용

굽은 강둑 산사태의 팽창 전파 및 댐과의 상호 작용

펑후이, 황야지에

수자원 보존 및 환경 학교, Three Gorges University, Yichang, Hubei 443000

收稿日期:2021-08-19 修回日期:2021-09-30 发布日期:2022-10-13
通讯作者: Huang Yajie (1993-), Shangqiu, Henan, 석사 학위, 그의 연구 방향은 수리 구조입니다. 이메일: master_hyj@163.com
作者简介:Peng Hui(1976-)는 후베이성 이창에서 태어나 교수, 의사, 박사 지도교수로 주로 수력 구조의 교육 및 연구에 종사했습니다. 이메일:hpeng1976@163.com
基金资助:국가핵심연구개발사업(2018YFC1508801-4)

곡선하천의 산사태 해일 전파 및 댐과의 상호작용

PENG Hui, HUANG Ya-jie

중국 삼협대학 수자원환경대학 이창 443000 중국

Received:2021-08-19 Revised:2021-09-30 Published:2022-10-13

Abstract

추상적인:저수지 제방 산사태는 일반적인 지질학적 위험으로, 제때에 미리 경고하지 않으면 하천에 해일파가 발생하여 하천 교통이나 인근 수자원 보호 시설의 안전을 위험에 빠뜨릴 수 있습니다. 저수지 제방 산사태로 인한 해일파 전파 전파 Flow-3D를 이용하여 하류 댐과의 상호작용을 시뮬레이션 하였다. 수리학적 물리적 모델 시험의 타당성과 정확성을 검증하기 위하여 3차원 산사태 해지 모델을 구축하였다. 수면 높이 변화와 서지의 전파 과정에 대한 수리학적 물리적 모델 테스트. 그 동안,가장 위험한 수심과 입사각 조건은 다양한 조건에서 댐과 산사태 해일 사이의 상호 작용을 분석하여 얻었습니다. 엔지니어링 사례는 최대 동적 수두가 해일 높이의 수두보다 작고 물을 따라 감소한다는 것을 보여주었습니다. 이 경우, 서지의 정적 최대 수두에 따라 계산된 댐의 응력은 안전합니다.

As a common geological hazard,reservoir bank landslide would most probably induce surge waves in river if not prewarned in time,endangering river traffic or the safety of nearby water conservancy facilities.The propagation of surge wave induced by the landslide of curved river bank in reservoir and its interaction with downstream dam were simulated by using Flow-3D.A three-dimensional landslide surge model was constructed to verify the validity and accuracy of hydraulic physical model test.The result of the three-dimensional numerical simulation was in good agreement with that of hydraulic physical model test in terms of the water surface height change and the propagation process of the surge.In the mean time,the most dangerous water depth and incident angle conditions were obtained by analyzing the interaction between the dam and the landslide surge under different conditions.Engineering examples demonstrated that the maximum dynamic water head was smaller than the water head of surge height,and reduced along the water depth direction.In such cases,the stress of the dam calculated according to the static maximum water head of the surge is safe.

Key words

슬라이드 서지, 곡선 수로형 저수지, 수치 시뮬레이션, 동적 수압, 중력 댐, slide surges, curved channel type reservoirs, numerical simulation, dynamic water pressure, gravity dam

원문보기1

원문보기2

The failure propagation of weakly stable sediment: A reason for the formation of high-velocity turbidity currents in submarine canyons

약한 안정 퇴적물의 실패 전파: 해저 협곡에서 고속 탁도 흐름이 형성되는 이유

Yupeng Ren, Yi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu, Houjie Wang & Zhiyuan Chen

Abstract

Abstract해저 협곡에서 탁도의 장거리 이동은 많은 양의 퇴적물을 심해 평원으로 운반할 수 있습니다. 이전 연구에서는 5.9~28.0m/s 범위의 다중 케이블 손상 이벤트에서 파생된 탁도 전류 속도와 0.15~7.2m/s 사이의 현장 관찰 결과에서 명백한 차이가 있음을 보여줍니다. 따라서 해저 환경의 탁한 유체가 해저 협곡을 고속으로 장거리로 흐를 수 있는지에 대한 질문이 남아 있습니다. 연구실 시험의 결합을 통해 해저협곡의 탁류의 고속 및 장거리 운동을 설명하기 위해 약안정 퇴적물 기반의 새로운 모델(약안정 퇴적물에 대한 파손 전파 모델 제안, 줄여서 WSS-PFP 모델)을 제안합니다. 및 수치 아날로그. 이 모델은 두 가지 메커니즘을 기반으로 합니다. 1) 원래 탁도류는 약하게 안정한 퇴적층의 불안정화를 촉발하고 연질 퇴적물의 불안정화 및 하류 방향으로의 이동을 촉진하고 2) 원래 탁도류가 협곡으로 이동할 때 형성되는 여기파가 불안정화로 이어진다. 하류 방향으로 약하게 안정한 퇴적물의 수송. 제안된 모델은 심해 퇴적, 오염 물질 이동 및 광 케이블 손상 연구를 위한 동적 프로세스 해석을 제공할 것입니다.

The long-distance movement of turbidity currents in submarine canyons can transport large amounts of sediment to deep-sea plains. Previous studies show obvious differences in the turbidity current velocities derived from the multiple cables damage events ranging from 5.9 to 28.0 m/s and those of field observations between 0.15 and 7.2 m/s. Therefore, questions remain regarding whether a turbid fluid in an undersea environment can flow through a submarine canyon for a long distance at a high speed. A new model based on weakly stable sediment is proposed (proposed failure propagation model for weakly stable sediments, WSS-PFP model for short) to explain the high-speed and long-range motion of turbidity currents in submarine canyons through the combination of laboratory tests and numerical analogs. The model is based on two mechanisms: 1) the original turbidity current triggers the destabilization of the weakly stable sediment bed and promotes the destabilization and transport of the soft sediment in the downstream direction and 2) the excitation wave that forms when the original turbidity current moves into the canyon leads to the destabilization and transport of the weakly stable sediment in the downstream direction. The proposed model will provide dynamic process interpretation for the study of deep-sea deposition, pollutant transport, and optical cable damage.

Keyword

turbidity current
excitation wave
dense basal layer
velocity
WSS-PFP model

References

Azpiroz-Zabala M, Cartigny M J B, Talling P J et al. 2017. Newly recognized turbidity current structure can explain prolonged flushing of submarine canyons. Science Advances, 3(10): e1700200, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700200.Article Google Scholar
Bagnold R A. 1962. Auto-suspension of transported sediment; turbidity currents. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 265(1322): 315–319, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1962.0012.Google Scholar
Carter L, Gavey R, Talling P J et al. 2014. Insights into submarine geohazards from breaks in subsea telecommunication cables. Oceanography, 27(2): 58–67, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2014.40.Article Google Scholar
Carter L, Milliman J D, Talling P J et al. 2012. Near-synchronous and delayed initiation of long run-out submarine sediment flows from a record-breaking river flood, offshore Taiwan. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(12): L12603, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012gl051172.Article Google Scholar
Cooper C, Wood J, Imran J et al. 2016. Designing for turbidity currents in the Congo Canyon. In: Offshore Technology Conference. OTC, Houston, TX. OTC-26919-MSp, https://doi.org/10.4043/26919-ms.Google Scholar
Dengler A T, Wilde P, Noda E K et al. 1984. Turbidity currents generated by Hurricane Iwa. Geo-Marine Letters, 4(1): 5–11, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02237967.Article Google Scholar
Fang A M, Li J L, Hou Q L. 1998. Sedimentation of turbidity currents and relative gravity flows: a review. Geological Review, 44(3): 270–280, https://doi.org/10.16509/j.georeview.1998.03.009. (in Chinese with English abstract)Google Scholar
Felix M, Peakall J. 2006. Transformation of debris flows into turbidity currents: mechanisms inferred from laboratory experiments. Sedimentology, 53(1): 107–123, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2005.00757.x.Article Google Scholar
Gavey R, Carter L, Liu J T et al. 2017. Frequent sediment density flows during 2006 to 2015, triggered by competing seismic and weather events: observations from subsea cable breaks off southern Taiwan. Marine Geology, 384: 147–158, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2016.06.001.Article Google Scholar
Heerema C J, Talling P J, Cartigny M J et al. 2020. What determines the downstream evolution of turbidity currents?. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 532: 116023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.116023.Article Google Scholar
Heezen B C, Ericson D B, Ewing M. 1954. Further evidence for a turbidity current following the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake. Deep Sea Research (1953), 1(4): 193–202, https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6313(54)90001-5.Article Google Scholar
Heezen B C, Ewing M. 1955. Orleansville earthquake and turbidity currents. AAPG Bulletin, 39(12): 2505–2514, https://doi.org/10.1306/5ceae2e6-16bb-11d7-8645000102c1865d.Google Scholar
Heezen B C, Ewing W M. 1952. Turbidity currents and submarine slumps, and the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake. American Journal of Science, 250(12): 849–873, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.250.12.849.Article Google Scholar
Hsu S K, Kuo J, Lo C L et al. 2008. Turbidity currents, submarine landslides and the 2006 Pingtung earthquake off SW Taiwan. Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, 19(6): 767–772, https://doi.org/10.3319/tao.2008.19.6.767(pt).Article Google Scholar
Krause D C, White W C, Piper D J W et al. 1970. Turbidity currents and cable breaks in the western New Britain Trench. GSA Bulletin, 81(7): 2153–2160, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[2153:tcacbi]2.0.co;2.Article Google Scholar
Kuenen P H. 1952. Estimated size of the Grand Banks turbidity current. American Journal of Science, 250(12): 874–884, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.250.12.874.Article Google Scholar
Lambert A M, Kelts K R, Marshall N F. 1976. Measurements of density underflows from Walensee, Switzerland. Sedimentology, 23(1): 87–105, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1976.tb00040.x.Article Google Scholar
Liu J T, Wang Y H, Yang R J et al. 2012. Cyclone-induced hyperpycnal turbidity currents in a submarine canyon. Journal of Geophysical Research, 117(C4): C04033, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011jc007630.Article Google Scholar
Maier K L, Gales J A, Paull C K et al. 2019. Linking direct measurements of turbidity currents to submarine canyon-floor deposits. Frontiers in Earth Science, 7: 144, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00144.Article Google Scholar
Mulder T, Syvitski J P M, Migeon S et al. 2003. Marine hyperpycnal flows: initiation, behavior and related deposits. A review. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 20(6–8): 861–882, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.01.003.Article Google Scholar
Nie X, Luo W D, Zhou J. 2017. Depositional characteristics of the Penghu submarine canyon in the northeastern South China Sea. Marine Geology Frontiers, 33(8): 18–23, https://doi.org/10.16028/j.1009-2722.2017.08003. (in Chinese with English abstract)Google Scholar
Nilsen T H, Shew R D, Steffens G S et al. 2008. Atlas of Deep-Water Outcrops. AAPG, Tulsa, https://doi.org/10.1306/St561240.Book Google Scholar
Parker G, Fukushima Y, Pantin H M. 1986. Self-accelerating turbidity currents. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 171: 145–181, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022112086001404.Article Google Scholar
Parker G. 1982. Conditions for the ignition of catastrophically erosive turbidity currents. Marine Geology, 46(3–4): 307–327, https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(82)90086-x.Article Google Scholar
Paull C K, Caress D W, Lundsten E et al. 2013. Anatomy of the La Jolla Submarine Canyon system; offshore southern California. Marine Geology, 335: 16–34, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2012.10.003.Article Google Scholar
Paull C K, Caress D W, Ussler III B et al. 2011. High-resolution bathymetry of the axial channels within Monterey and Soquel submarine canyons, offshore central California. Geosphere, 7(5): 1077–1101, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES00636.1.Article Google Scholar
Paull C K, Talling P J, Maier K L et al. 2018. Powerful turbidity currents driven by dense basal layers. Nature Communications, 9(1): 4114, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06254-6.Article Google Scholar
Piper D J W, Shor A N, Clarke J E H. 1988. The 1929 “Grand banks” earthquake, slump, and turbidity current. In: Clifton H E ed. Sedimentologic Consequences of Convulsive Geologic Events. Geological Society of America. p.77–92, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE229-p77.
Sequeiros O E, Mosquera R, Pedocchi F. 2018. Internal structure of a self-accelerating turbidity current. Journal of Geophysical Research, 123(9): 6260–6276, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc014061.Article Google Scholar
Sequeiros O E, Naruse H, Endo N et al. 2009. Experimental study on self-accelerating turbidity currents. Journal of Geophysical Research, 114(C5): C05025, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008jc005149.Article Google Scholar
Shepard F P. 1954. High-velocity turbidity currents, a discussion. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 222(1150): 323–326, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1954.0072.Google Scholar
Stetson H C, Smith J F. 1938. Behavior of suspension currents and mud slides on the continental slope. American Journal of Science, s5–35(205): 1–13, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.s5-35.205.1.Article Google Scholar
Symons W Q, Sumner E J, Paull C K et al. 2017. A new model for turbidity current behavior based on integration of flow monitoring and precision coring in a submarine canyon. Geology, 45(4): 367–370, https://doi.org/10.1130/g38764.1.Article Google Scholar
Talling P J, Allin J, Armitage D A et al. 2015. Key future directions for research on turbidity currents and their deposits. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 85(2): 153–169, https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2015.03.Article Google Scholar
Wang Z W, Xu J P, Talling P J et al. 2020. Direct evidence of a high-concentration basal layer in a submarine turbidity current. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 161: 103300, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2020.103300.Article Google Scholar
Winterwerp J C. 2006. Stratification effects by fine suspended sediment at low, medium, and very high concentrations. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(C5): C05012, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005jc003019.Article Google Scholar
Xu J P. 2014. Turbidity Current research in the past century: an overview. Periodical of Ocean University of China, 44(10): 98–105, https://doi.org/10.16441/j.cnki.hdxb.2014.10.014.Google Scholar
Zeng J J, Lowe D R, Prior D B et al. 1991. Flow properties of turbidity currents in Bute Inlet, British Columbia. Sedimentology, 38(6): 975–996, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1991.tb00367.x.Article Google Scholar
Zhang X, Wang L, Krabbenhoft K et al. 2020. A case study and implication: particle finite element modelling of the 2010 Saint-Jude sensitive clay landslide. Landslides, 17(5): 1117–1127, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01330-4.Article Google Scholar
Zhang Y W, Liu Z F, Zhao Y L et al. 2018. Long-term in situ observations on typhoon-triggered turbidity currents in the deep sea. Geology, 46(8): 675–678, https://doi.org/10.1130/g45178.1.Article Google Scholar
Zhou H G. 2020. Experimental study on flow ability and fixed sand bed shear force of turbid suspension.

Download references

Acknowledgment

We thank Hanru WU from Ocean University of China for his help in thesis writing, and Hao TIAN and Chenxi WANG from Ocean University of China for their helps in the preparation of the experimental materials. Guohui XU is responsible for the development of the initial concept, processing of test data, and management of coauthor contributions to the paper; Yupeng REN for the experiment setup and drafting of the paper; Yi ZHANG and Xingbei XU for the simulation part of the experiment; Houjie WANG for writing guidance; Zhiyuan CHEN for the experiment setup.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Geological Engineering, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYupeng Ren, Yi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu & Zhiyuan Chen
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Geological Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYupeng Ren & Houjie Wang
Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu & Zhiyuan Chen

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Guohui Xu.

Additional information

Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41976049, 41720104001) and the Taishan Scholar Project of Shandong Province (No. TS20190913), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 202061028)

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ren, Y., Zhang, Y., Xu, G. et al. The failure propagation of weakly stable sediment: A reason for the formation of high-velocity turbidity currents in submarine canyons. J. Ocean. Limnol. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00343-022-1285-0

원문보기

Numerical study of the dam-break waves and Favre waves down sloped wet rigid-bed at laboratory scale

WenjunLiu^a BoWang^a YakunGuo^b^aState Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource and Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China^bFaculty of Engineering & Informatics, University of Bradford, BD7 1DP, UK

Highlights

경사진 습윤층에서 댐파괴유동과 FFavre 파를 수치적으로 조사하였다.
수직 대 수평 속도의 비율이 먼저 정량화됩니다.
유동 상태는 유상 경사가 큰 후기 단계에서 크게 변경됩니다.
Favre 파도는 수직 속도와 수직 가속도에 큰 영향을 미칩니다.
베드 전단응력의 변화는 베드 기울기와 꼬리물의 영향을 받습니다.

Abstract

The bed slope and the tailwater depth are two important ones among the factors that affect the propagation of the dam-break flood and Favre waves. Most previous studies have only focused on the macroscopic characteristics of the dam-break flows or Favre waves under the condition of horizontal bed, rather than the internal movement characteristics in sloped channel. The present study applies two numerical models, namely, large eddy simulation (LES) and shallow water equations (SWEs) models embedded in the CFD software package FLOW-3D to analyze the internal movement characteristics of the dam-break flows and Favre waves, such as water level, the velocity distribution, the fluid particles acceleration and the bed shear stress, under the different bed slopes and water depth ratios. The results under the conditions considered in this study show that there is a flow state transition in the flow evolution for the steep bed slope even in water depth ratio α = 0.1 (α is the ratio of the tailwater depth to the reservoir water depth). The flow state transition shows that the wavefront changes from a breaking state to undular. Such flow transition is not observed for the horizontal slope and mild bed slope. The existence of the Favre waves leads to a significant increase of the vertical velocity and the vertical acceleration. In this situation, the SWEs model has poor prediction. Analysis reveals that the variation of the maximum bed shear stress is affected by both the bed slope and tailwater depth. Under the same bed slope (e.g., S₀ = 0.02), the maximum bed shear stress position develops downstream of the dam when α = 0.1, while it develops towards the end of the reservoir when α = 0.7. For the same water depth ratio (e.g., α = 0.7), the maximum bed shear stress position always locates within the reservoir at S₀ = 0.02, while it appears in the downstream of the dam for S₀ = 0 and 0.003 after the flow evolves for a while. The comparison between the numerical simulation and experimental measurements shows that the LES model can predict the internal movement characteristics with satisfactory accuracy. This study improves the understanding of the effect of both the bed slope and the tailwater depth on the internal movement characteristics of the dam-break flows and Favre waves, which also provides a valuable reference for determining the flood embankment height and designing the channel bed anti-scouring facility.

Fig. 1. Sketch of related variables involved in shallow water model.

Fig. 2. Flume model in numerical simulation.

Fig. 3. Grid sensitivity analysis (a) water surface profile; (b) velocity profile.

Fig. 4. Sketch of experimental set-up for validating the velocity profile.

Fig. 5. Sketch of experimental set-up for validating the bed shear stress.

Fig. 6. Model validation results (a) variation of the velocity profile; (b) error value of the velocity profile; (c) variation of the bed shear stress; (d) error value of the bed shear stress.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of regional division.

Fig. 8. Variation of water surface profile (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 9. Froude number for α = 0.1 (a) variation with time; (b) variation with wavefront position.

Fig. 10. Characteristics of velocity distribution (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 11. Average proportion of the vertical velocity (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 12. Bed shear stress distribution (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 13. Variation of the maximum bed shear stress position with time (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 14. Time when the maximum bed shear stress appears at different positions (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 15. Movement characteristics of the fluid particles (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Keywords

Dam-break flow, Bed slope, Wet bed, Velocity profile, Bed shear stress, Large eddy simulation

References

Barnes, M.P., Baldock, T.E. 2006. Bed shear stress measurements in dam break and swash
flows. Proceedings of International Conference on Civil and Environmental
Engineering. Hiroshima University, Japan, 28–29 September.
Biscarini, C., Francesco, S.D., Manciola, P., 2010. CFD modelling approach for dam break
flow studies. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sc. 14, 705–718. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-14-
705-2010.
Fig. 15. (continued).
W. Liu et al.
Journal of Hydrology 602 (2021) 126752
19
Bristeau, M.-O., Goutal, N., Sainte-Marie, J., 2011. Numerical simulations of a nonhydrostatic shallow water model. Comput. Fluids. 47 (1), 51–64. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.compfluid.2011.02.013.
Bung, D.B., Hildebrandt, A., Oertel, M., Schlenkhoff, A., Schlurmann, T. 2008. Bore
propagation over a submerged horizontal plate by physical and numerical
simulation. Proc. 31st Intl.Conf. Coastal Eng., Hamburg, Germany, 3542–3553.
Cantero-Chinchilla, F.N., Castro-Orgaz, O., Dey, S., Ayuso, J.L., 2016. Nonhydrostatic
dam break flows. I: physical equations and numerical schemes. J. Hydraul. Eng. 142
(12), 04016068. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001205.
Castro-Orgaz, O., Chanson, H., 2020. Undular and broken surges in dam-break flows: A
review of wave breaking strategies in a boussinesq-type framework. Environ. Fluid
Mech. 154 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10652-020-09749-3.
Chang, T.-J., Kao, H.-M., Chang, K.-H., Hsu, M.-H., 2011. Numerical simulation of
shallow-water dam break flows in open channels using smoothed particle
hydrodynamics. J. Hydrol. 408 (1-2), 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhydrol.2011.07.023.
Chen, H., Xu, W., Deng, J., Xue, Y., Li, J., 2009. Experimental investigation of pressure
load exerted on a downstream dam by dam-break flow. J. Hydraul. Eng. 140,
199–207. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000743.
Favre H. 1935. Etude th´eorique et exp´erimentale des ondes de translation dans les
canaux d´ecouverts. Dunod, Paris. (in French).
Flow Science Inc. 2016. Flow-3D User’s Manuals. Santa Fe NM.
Fraccarollo, L., Toro, E.F., 1995. Experimental and numerical assessment of the shallow
water model for two-dimensional dam-break type problems. J. Hydraul. Res. 33 (6),
843–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221689509498555.
Guo, Y., Wu, X., Pan, C., Zhang, J., 2012. Numerical simulation of the tidal flow and
suspended sediment transport in the qiantang estuary. J Waterw. Port Coastal. 138
(3), 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000118.
Guo, Y., Zhang, Z., Shi, B., 2014. Numerical simulation of gravity current descending a
slope into a linearly stratified environment. J. Hydraulic Eng. 140 (12), 04014061.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000936.
Khosronejad, A., Kang, S., Flora, K., 2019. Fully coupled free-surface flow and sediment
transport modelling of flash floods in a desert stream in the mojave desert, california.
Hydrol. Process 33 (21), 2772–2791. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.v33.2110.1002/
hyp.13527.
Khosronejad, A., Arabi, M.G., Angelidis, D., Bagherizadeh, E., Flora, K., Farhadzadeh, A.,
2020a. A comparative study of rigid-lid and level-set methods for LES of openchannel flows: morphodynamics. Environ. Fluid Mech. 20 (1), 145–164. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10652-019-09703-y.
Khosronejad, A., Flora, K., Zhang, Z.X., Kang, S., 2020b. Large-eddy simulation of flash
flood propagation and sediment transport in a dry-bed desert stream. Int. J.
Sediment Res. 35 (6), 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsrc.2020.02.002.
Khoshkonesh, A., Nsom, B., Gohari, S., Banejad, H., 2019. A comprehensive study of dam
break over the dry and wet beds. Ocean Eng. 188, 106279.1–106279.18. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2019.106279.
Kocaman, S., Ozmen-Cagatay, H., 2012. The effect of lateral channel contraction on dam
break flows: laboratory experiment. J. Hydrol. 432–433, 145–153. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.02.035.
Kocaman, S., Ozmen-Cagatay, H., 2015. Investigation of dam-break induced shock waves
impact on a vertical wall. J. Hydrol. 525, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhydrol.2015.03.040.
LaRocque, L.A., Imran, J., Chaudhry, M.H., 2013a. Experimental and numerical
investigations of two-dimensional dam-break flows. J. Hydraul. Eng. 139 (6),
569–579. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000705.
Larocque, L.A., Imran, J., Chaudhry, M.H., 2013b. 3D numerical simulation of partial
breach dam-break flow using the LES and k-ε turbulence models. J. Hydraul. Res. 51,
145–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221686.2012.734862.
Lauber, G., Hager, W.H., 1998a. Experiments to dam break wave: Horizontal channel.
J. Hydraul. Res. 36 (3), 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221689809498620.
Lauber, G., Hager, W.H., 1998b. Experiments to dam break wave: Sloping channel.
J. Hydraul. Res. 36 (5), 761–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221689809498601.
Leal, J.G., Ferreira, R.M., Cardoso, A.H., 2006. Dam-break wave-front celerity.
J. Hydraul. Eng. 132 (1), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2006)
132:1(69).
Liu, W., Wang, B., Guo, Y., Zhang, J., Chen, Y., 2020. Experimental investigation on the
effects of bed slope and tailwater on dam-break flows. J. Hydrol. 590, 125256.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125256.
Marche, C., Beauchemin P. EL Kayloubi, A. 1995. Etude num´erique et exp´erimentale des
ondes secondaires de Favre cons´ecutives a la rupture d’un harrage. Can. J. Civil Eng.
22, 793–801, (in French). https://doi.org/10.1139/l95-089.
Marra, D., Earl, T., Ancey, C. 2011. Experimental investigations of dam break flows down
an inclined channel. Proceedings of the 34th World Congress of the International
Association for Hydro-Environment Research and Engineering: 33rd Hydrology and
Water Resources Symposium and 10th Conference on Hydraulics in Water
Engineering, Brisbane, Australia.
Marsooli, R., Wu, W., 2014. 3-D finite-volume model of dam-break flow over uneven
beds based on vof method. Adv. Water Resour. 70, 104–117. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.advwatres.2014.04.020.
Miller, S., Chaudhry, M.H., 1989. Dam-break flows in curved channel. J. Hydraul. Eng.
115 (11), 1465–1478. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1989)115:11
(1465).
Mohapatra, P.K., Chaudhry, M.H., 2004. Numerical solution of Boussinesq equations to
simulate dam-break flows. J. Hydraul. Eng. 130 (2), 156–159. https://doi.org/
10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2004)130:2(156).
Oertel, M., Bung, D.B., 2012. Initial stage of two-dimensional dam-break waves:
laboratory versus VOF. J. Hydraul. Res. 50 (1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00221686.2011.639981.
Ozmen-Cagatay, H., Kocaman, S., 2012. Investigation of dam-break flow over abruptly
contracting channel with trapezoidal-shaped lateral obstacles. J. Fluids Eng. 134,
081204 https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4007154.
Ozmen-Cagatay, H., Kocaman, S., Guzel, H., 2014. Investigation of dam-break flood
waves in a dry channel with a hump. J. Hydro-environ. Res. 8 (3), 304–315. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jher.2014.01.005.
Park, I.R., Kim, K.S., Kim, J., Van, S.H., 2012. Numerical investigation of the effects of
turbulence intensity on dam-break flows. Ocean Eng. 42, 176–187. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.oceaneng.2012.01.005.
Peregrine, D.H., 1966. Calculations of the development of an undular bore. J. Fluid
Mech. 25 (2), 321–330. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112066001678.
Savic, L.j., Holly, F.M., 1993. Dam break flood waves computed by modified Godunov
method. J. Hydraul. Res. 31 (2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00221689309498844.
Shigematsu, T., Liu, P., Oda, K., 2004. Numerical modeling of the initial stages of dambreak waves. J. Hydraul. Res. 42 (2), 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00221686.2004.9628303.
Smagorinsky, J., 1963. General circulation experiments with the primitive equations.
Part I: the basic experiment. Mon. Weather Rev. 91, 99–164. https://doi.org/
10.1126/science.27.693.594.
Soares-Frazao, S., Zech, Y., 2002. Undular bores and secondary waves – Experiments and
hybrid finite-volume modeling. J. Hydraul. Res. 40, 33–43. https://doi.org/
10.1080/00221680209499871.
Stansby, P.K., Chegini, A., Barnes, T.C.D., 1998. The initial stages of dam-break flow.
J. Fluid Mech. 370, 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1017/022112098001918.
Treske, A., 1994. Undular bores (favre-waves) in open channels – experimental studies.
J. Hydraul. Res. 32 (3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221689409498738.
Wang, B., Chen, Y., Wu, C., Dong, J., Ma, X., Song, J., 2016. A semi-analytical approach
for predicting peak discharge of floods caused by embankment dam failures. Hydrol.
Process 30 (20), 3682–3691. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.v30.2010.1002/
hyp.10896.
Wang, B., Chen, Y., Wu, C., Peng, Y., Ma, X., Song, J., 2017. Analytical solution of dambreak flood wave propagation in a dry sloped channel with an irregular-shaped
cross-section. J. Hydro-environ. Res. 14, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jher.2016.11.003.
Wang, B., Chen, Y., Wu, C., Peng, Y., Song, J., Liu, W., Liu, X., 2018. Empirical and semianalytical models for predicting peak outflows caused by embankment dam failures.
J. Hydrol. 562, 692–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.05.049.
Wang, B., Zhang, J., Chen, Y., Peng, Y., Liu, X., Liu, W., 2019. Comparison of measured
dam-break flood waves in triangular and rectangular channels. J. Hydrol. 575,
690–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.05.081.
Wang, B., Liu, W., Zhang, J., Chen, Y., Wu, C., Peng, Y., Wu, Z., Liu, X., Yang, S., 2020a.
Enhancement of semi-theoretical models for predicting peak discharges in breached
embankment dams. Environ. Fluid Mech. 20 (4), 885–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10652-019-09730-9.
Wang, B., Chen, Y., Peng, Y., Zhang, J., Guo, Y., 2020b. Analytical solution of shallow
water equations for ideal dam-break flood along a wet bed slope. J. Hydraul. Eng.
146 (2), 06019020. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001683.
Wang, B., Liu, W., Wang, W., Zhang, J., Chen, Y., Peng, Y., Liu, X., Yang, S., 2020c.
Experimental and numerical investigations of similarity for dam-break flows on wet
bed. J. Hydrol. 583, 124598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124598.
Wang, B., Liu, X., Zhang, J., Guo, Y., Chen, Y., Peng, Y., Liu, W., Yang, S., Zhang, F.,
2020d. Analytical and experimental investigations of dam-break flows in triangular
channels with wet-bed conditions. J. Hydraul. Eng. 146 (10), 04020070. https://doi.
org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0001808.
Wu, W., Wang, S., 2007. One-dimensional modeling of dam-break flow over movable
beds. J. Hydraul. Eng. 133 (1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429
(2007)133:1(48).
Xia, J., Lin, B., Falconer, R.A., Wang, G., 2010. Modelling dam-break flows over mobile
beds using a 2d coupled approach. Adv. Water Resour. 33 (2), 171–183. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2009.11.004.
Yang, S., Yang, W., Qin, S., Li, Q., Yang, B., 2018a. Numerical study on characteristics of
dam-break wave. Ocean Eng. 159, 358–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
oceaneng.2018.04.011.
Yang, S., Yang, W., Qin, S., Li, Q., 2018b. Comparative study on calculation methods of
dam-break wave. J. Hydraul. Res. 57 (5), 702–714. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00221686.2018.1494057.

Fig. 6. Experiment of waves passing through a single block of porous medium.

Generalization of a three-layer model for wave attenuation in n-block submerged porous breakwater

NadhiraKarima^a IkhaMagdalena^a^b IndrianaMarcela^a MohammadFarid^b^aFaculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bandung Institute of Technology, 40132, Indonesia^bCenter for Coastal and Marine Development, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia

Highlights

•A new three-layer model for n-block submerged porous breakwaters is developed.

•New analytical approach in finding the wave transmission coefficient is presented.

•A finite volume method successfully simulates the wave attenuation process.

•Porous media blocks characteristics and configuration can optimize wave reduction.

Abstract

높은 파도 진폭은 해안선에 위험한 영향을 미치고 해안 복원력을 약화시킬 수 있습니다. 그러나 다중 다공성 매체는 해양 생태계의 환경 친화적인 해안 보호 역할을 할 수 있습니다.

이 논문에서 우리는 n개의 잠긴 다공성 미디어 블록이 있는 영역에서 파동 진폭 감소를 계산하기 위해 3층 깊이 통합 방정식을 사용합니다. 수학적 모델은 파동 전달 계수를 얻기 위해 여러 행렬 방정식을 포함하는 변수 분리 방법을 사용하여 해석적으로 해결됩니다.

이 계수는 진폭 감소의 크기에 대한 정보를 제공합니다. 또한 모델을 수치적으로 풀기 위해 지그재그 유한 체적 방법이 적용됩니다.

수치 시뮬레이션을 통해 다공성 매질 블록의 구성과 특성이 투과파 진폭을 줄이는 데 중요하다는 결론을 내렸습니다.

High wave amplitudes may cause dangerous effects on the shoreline and weaken coastal resilience. However, multiple porous media can act as environmental friendly coastal protectors of the marine ecosystem. In this paper, we use three-layer depth-integrated equations to calculate wave amplitude reduction in a domain with n submerged porous media blocks. The mathematical model is solved analytically using the separation of variables method involving several matrix equations to obtain the wave transmission coefficient. This coefficient provides information about the magnitude of amplitude reduction. Additionally, a staggered finite volume method is applied to solve the model numerically. By conducting numerical simulations, we conclude that porous media blocks’ configuration and characteristics are crucial in reducing transmitted wave amplitude.

Keywords

Three-layer equations, Submerged porous media, Wave transmission coefficient, Finite volume method

Fig. 1. Sketch of the problem configuration.

References

[1]M. Beck, G. Lange, Managing Coasts with Natural Solutions: Guidelines for Measuring and Valuing the Coastal Protection Services of Mangroves and Coral Reefs.

Google Scholar [2]

Y. Zhao, Y. Liu, H. Li, A. Chang

Oblique wave motion over multiple submerged porous bars near a vertical wall

J. Ocean Univ. China, 16 (2017), pp. 568-574, 10.1007/s11802-017-3333-5 View PDF

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [3]C. K. Sollitt, R. H. Cross, Wave transmission through permeable breakwaters, Coast. Eng..

Google Scholar [4]J.-F. Lee, L.-F. Tu, C.-C. Liu, Nonlinear wave evolution above rectangular submerged structures, J. Mar. Sci. Technol. 22. doi:10.6119/JMST-013-0503-3.

Google Scholar [5]

Y.T. Wu, C.L. Yeh, S.-C. Hsiao

Three-dimensional numerical simulation on the interaction of solitary waves and porous breakwaters

Coast. Eng., 85 (2014), pp. 12-29

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [6]

Y. feng Xu, X. he Xia, J. hua Wang, J. jian Chen

Numerical analysis on cnoidal wave induced response of porous seabed with definite thickness

J. Shanghai Jiao Tong Univ. (Sci.), 18 (2013), pp. 650-654, 10.1007/s12204-013-1446-6 View PDF

Google Scholar [7]

D.M. Pérez-Romero, M. Ortega-Sánchez, A. Moñino, M.A. Losada

Characteristic friction coefficient and scale effects in oscillatory porous flow

Coast. Eng., 56 (9) (2009), pp. 931-939, 10.1016/j.coastaleng.2009.05.002

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [8]

A. Torres-Freyermuth, M. Brocchini, S. Corvaro, J.C. Pintado-Patiño

Wave attenuation over porous seabeds: a numerical study

Ocean Model., 117 (2017), pp. 28-40, 10.1016/j.ocemod.2017.07.004

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [9]F. Hajivalie, S. M. Mahmoudof, Experimental study of energy dissipation at rectangular submerged breakwater, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Fluid Mechanics.

Google Scholar [10]G. T. Klonaris, A. S. Metallinos, C. D. Memos, K. A. Galani, Experimental and numerical investigation of bed morphology in the lee of porous submerged breakwaters, Coast. Eng. 155.

Google Scholar [11]

A. Kubowicz-Grajewska

Experimental investigation into wave interaction with a rubble-mound submerged breakwater (case study)

J. Mar. Sci. Technol., 22 (2) (2017), pp. 313-326 View PDF

CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [12]

S.M. Mahmoudof, F. Hajivalie

Experimental study of hydraulic response of smooth submerged breakwaters to irregular waves

Oceanologia, 63 (4) (2021), pp. 448-462

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [13]

C. Tsai, H. Chen, F. Lee

Wave transformation over submerged permeable breakwater on porous bottom

Ocean Eng., 33 (2006), pp. 1623-1643, 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2005.09.006

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [14]

S. Rojanakamthorn, M. Isobe, A. Watanabe

A mathematical model of wave transformation over a submerged breakwater

Coastal Engineering in Japan, 31 (1989), pp. 209-234, 10.1080/05785634.1989.11924515 View PDF

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [15]

Q. Lin, Q.r. Meng, D.q. Lu

Waves propagating over a two-layer porous barrier on a seabed

J. Hydrodyn., 30 (3) (2018), pp. 453-462 View PDF

CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [16]X. Yu, A. T. Chwang, Wave motion through porous structures, J. Eng. Mech. 120. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(1994)120:5(989).

Google Scholar [17]

K.G. Vijay, V. Venkateswarlu, D. Karmakar

Scattering of gravity waves by multiple submerged rubble-mound breakwaters

Arabian J. Sci. Eng., 45 (10) (2020), pp. 8529-8550 View PDF

CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [18]

I. Magdalena, G. Jonathan

Water waves resonance and its interaction with submerged breakwater

Results in Engineering, 13 (2022), Article 100343, 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100343

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [19]

I. Magdalena, K. Firdaus, D. Jayadi

Analytical and numerical studies for wave generated by submarine landslide

Alex. Eng. J., 61 (9) (2022), pp. 7303-7313, 10.1016/j.aej.2021.12.069

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [20]

L. Arpaia, M. Ricchiuto, A.G. Filippini, R. Pedreros

An efficient covariant frame for the spherical shallow water equations: well balanced dg approximation and application to tsunami and storm surge

Ocean Model., 169 (2022), Article 101915, 10.1016/j.ocemod.2021.101915

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [21]

M. Briani, G. Puppo, M. Ribot

Angle dependence in coupling conditions for shallow water equations at channel junctions

Comput. Math. Appl., 108 (2022), pp. 49-65, 10.1016/j.camwa.2021.12.021

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [22]

I. Magdalena, G.R. Andadari, D.E. Reeve

An integrated study of wave attenuation by vegetation

Wave Motion, 110 (2022), Article 102878, 10.1016/j.wavemoti.2021.102878

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [23]

I. Magdalena, R. La’lang, R. Mendoza

Quantification of wave attenuation in mangroves in manila bay using nonlinear shallow water equations

Results in Applied Mathematics, 12 (2021), Article 100191, 10.1016/j.rinam.2021.100191

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [24]

K.T. Mandli

A numerical method for the two layer shallow water equations with dry states

Ocean Model., 72 (2013), pp. 80-91, 10.1016/j.ocemod.2013.08.001

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [25]

M. Farhan, Z. Omar, F. Mebarek-Oudina, J. Raza, Z. Shah, R.V. Choudhari, O.D. Makinde

Implementation of the one-step one-hybrid block method on the nonlinear equation of a circular sector oscillator

Comput. Math. Model., 31 (2020), pp. 116-132, 10.1007/s10598-020-09480-0 View PDF

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [26]

R. Djebali, F. Mebarek-Oudina, C. Rajashekhar

Similarity solution analysis of dynamic and thermal boundary layers: further formulation along a vertical flat plate

Phys. Scripta, 96 (8) (2021), Article 085206, 10.1088/1402-4896/abfe31 View PDF

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [27]

M. Alkasassbeh, O. Zurni, F. Mebarek-Oudina, J. Raza

Heat transfer study of convective fin with temperature,Äêdependent internal heat generation by hybrid block method

Heat Tran. Asian Res., 48 (2019), pp. 1225-1244, 10.1002/htj.21428 View PDF

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [28]

I. Magdalena, M.F. Eka Pebriansyah

Numerical treatment of finite difference method for solving dam break model on a wet-dry bed with an obstacle

Results in Engineering, 14 (2022), Article 100382, 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100382

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [29]

M. Uddin, S. Rasel, J.K. Adewole, K.S. Al Kalbani

Finite element simulation on the convective double diffusive water-based copper oxide nanofluid flow in a square cavity having vertical wavy surfaces in presence of hydro-magnetic field

Results in Engineering, 13 (2022), Article 100364, 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100364

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [30]

E.H.H. Al-Qadami, A.S. Abdurrasheed, Z. Mustaffa, K.W. Yusof, M. Malek, A.A. Ghani

Numerical modelling of flow characteristics over sharp crested triangular hump

Results in Engineering, 4 (2019), Article 100052, 10.1016/j.rineng.2019.100052

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [31]

I. Magdalena, V. Kusnowo, M.I. Azis

Widowati, 1d-2d numerical model for wave attenuation by mangroves as a porous structure

Computation, 9 (6) (2021), pp. 1-21

Google Scholar [32]

I. Magdalena, M.F. Atras, L. Sembiring, M.A. Nugroho, R.S.B. Labay, M.P. Roque

Wave transmission by rectangular submerged breakwaters

Computation, 8 (2) (2020), pp. 1-18 View PDF

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [33]

I. Magdalena, S.R. Pudjaprasetya

Numerical modeling for gravity waves over submerged porous media

Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 9 (28) (2015), pp. 124-130

View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [34]

I. Magdalena, A. Hariz, M. Farid, M.S.B. Kusuma

Numerical studies using staggered finite volume for dam break flow with an obstacle through different geometries

Results in Applied Mathematics, 12 (2021), Article 100193, 10.1016/j.rinam.2021.100193

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [35]

R. Walters, E. Hanert, J. Pietrzak, D. Le Roux

Comparison of unstructured, staggered grid methods for the shallow water equations

Ocean Model., 28 (1) (2009), pp. 106-117, 10.1016/j.ocemod.2008.12.004

the Sixth International Workshop on Unstructured Mesh Numerical Modelling of Coastal, Shelf and Ocean Flows

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [36]

F. Mebarek-Oudina

Numerical modeling of the hydrodynamic stability in vertical annulus with heat source of different lengths, Engineering Science and Technology

Int. J., 20 (4) (2017), pp. 1324-1333, 10.1016/j.jestch.2017.08.003

Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [37]

S. Pudjaprasetya, I. Magdalena

Numerical modeling for gravity waves over submerged porous media

Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 9 (2015), pp. 124-130

Google Scholar

원문보기

PDF 원문보기

Fig. 5. The predicted shapes of initial breach (a) Rectangular (b) V-notch. Fig. 6. Dam breaching stages.

Investigating the peak outflow through a spatial embankment dam breach

공간적 제방댐 붕괴를 통한 최대 유출량 조사

Mahmoud T.Ghonim Magdy H.Mowafy Mohamed N.Salem AshrafJatwaryFaculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt

Abstract

Investigating the breach outflow hydrograph is an essential task to conduct mitigation plans and flood warnings. In the present study, the spatial dam breach is simulated by using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model, FLOW-3D. The model parameters were adjusted by making a comparison with a previous experimental model. The different parameters (initial breach shape, dimensions, location, and dam slopes) are studied to investigate their effects on dam breaching. The results indicate that these parameters have a significant impact. The maximum erosion rate and peak outflow for the rectangular shape are higher than those for the V-notch by 8.85% and 5%, respectively. Increasing breach width or decreasing depth by 5% leads to increasing maximum erosion rate by 11% and 15%, respectively. Increasing the downstream slope angle by 4° leads to an increase in both peak outflow and maximum erosion rate by 2.0% and 6.0%, respectively.

유출 유출 수문곡선을 조사하는 것은 완화 계획 및 홍수 경보를 수행하는 데 필수적인 작업입니다. 본 연구에서는 3차원 전산유체역학 모델인 FLOW-3D를 사용하여 공간 댐 붕괴를 시뮬레이션합니다. 이전 실험 모델과 비교하여 모델 매개변수를 조정했습니다.

다양한 매개변수(초기 붕괴 형태, 치수, 위치 및 댐 경사)가 댐 붕괴에 미치는 영향을 조사하기 위해 연구됩니다. 결과는 이러한 매개변수가 상당한 영향을 미친다는 것을 나타냅니다. 직사각형 형태의 최대 침식율과 최대 유출량은 V-notch보다 각각 8.85%, 5% 높게 나타났습니다.

위반 폭을 늘리거나 깊이를 5% 줄이면 최대 침식률이 각각 11% 및 15% 증가합니다. 하류 경사각을 4° 증가시키면 최대 유출량과 최대 침식률이 각각 2.0% 및 6.0% 증가합니다.

Keywords

Spatial dam breach; FLOW-3D; Overtopping erosion; Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

1. Introduction

There are many purposes for dam construction, such as protection from flood disasters, water storage, and power generation. Embankment failures may have a catastrophic impact on lives and infrastructure in the downstream regions. One of the most common causes of embankment dam failure is overtopping. Once the overtopping of the dam begins, the breach formation will start in the dam body then end with the dam failure. This failure occurs within a very short time, which threatens to be very dangerous. Therefore, understanding and modeling the embankment breaching processes is essential for conducting mitigation plans, flood warnings, and forecasting flood damage.

The analysis of the dam breaching process is implemented by different techniques: comparative methods, empirical models with dimensional and dimensionless solutions, physical-based models, and parametric models. These models were described in detail [1]. Parametric modeling is commonly used to simulate breach growth as a time-dependent linear process and calculate outflow discharge from the breach using hydraulics principles [2]. Alhasan et al. [3] presented a simple one-dimensional mathematical model and a computer code to simulate the dam breaching process. These models were validated by small dams breaching during the floods in 2002 in the Czech Republic. Fread [4] developed an erosion model (BREACH) based on hydraulics principles, sediment transport, and soil mechanics to estimate breach size, time of formation, and outflow discharge. Říha et al. [5] investigated the dam break process for a cascade of small dams using a simple parametric model for piping and overtopping erosion, as well as a 2D shallow-water flow model for the flood in downstream areas. Goodarzi et al. [6] implemented mathematical and statistical methods to assess the effect of inflows and wind speeds on the dam’s overtopping failure.

Dam breaching studies can be divided into two main modes of erosion. The first mode is called “planar dam breach” where the flow overtops the whole dam width. While the second mode is called “spatial dam breach” where the flow overtops through the initial pilot channel (i.e., a channel created in the dam body). Therefore, the erosion will be in both vertical and horizontal directions [7].

The erosion process through the embankment dams occurs due to the shear stress applied by water flows. The dam breaching evolution can be divided into three stages [8], [9], but Y. Yang et al. [10] divided the breach development into five stages: Stage I, the seepage erosion; Stage II, the initial breach formation; Stage III, the head erosion; Stage IV, the breach expansion; and Stage V, the re-equilibrium of the river channel through the breach. Many experimental tests have been carried out on non-cohesive embankment dams with an initial breach to examine the effect of upstream inflow discharges on the longitudinal profile evolution and the time to inflection point [11].

Zhang et al. [12] studied the effect of changing downstream slope angle, sediment grain size, and dam crest length on erosion rates. They noticed that increasing dam crest length and decreasing downstream slope angle lead to decreasing sediment transport rate. While the increase in sediment grain size leads to an increased sediment transport rate at the initial stages. Höeg et al. [13] presented a series of field tests to investigate the stability of embankment dams made of various materials. Overtopping and piping were among the failure tests carried out for the dams composed of homogeneous rock-fill, clay, or gravel with a height of up to 6.0 m. Hakimzadeh et al. [14] constructed 40 homogeneous cohesive and non-cohesive embankment dams to study the effect of changing sediment diameter and dam height on the breaching process. They also used genetic programming (GP) to estimate the breach outflow. Refaiy et al. [15] studied different scenarios for the downstream drain geometry, such as length, height, and angle, to minimize the effect of piping phenomena and therefore increase dam safety.

Zhu et al. [16] examined the effect of headcut erosion on dam breach growth, especially in the case of cohesive dams. They found that the breach growth in non-cohesive embankments is slower than cohesive embankments due to the little effect of headcut. Schmocker and Hager [7] proposed a relationship for estimating peak outflow from the dam breach process.(1)QpQin-1=1.7exp-20hc23d5013H0

where: Q_p = peak outflow discharge.

Q_in = inflow discharge.

h_c = critical flow depth.

d₅₀ = mean sediment diameter.

H_o = initial dam height.

Yu et al. [17] carried out an experimental study for homogeneous non-cohesive embankment dams in a 180° bending rectangular flume to determine the effect of overtopping flows on breaching formation. They found that the main factors influencing breach formation are water level, river discharge, and embankment material diameter.

Wu et al. [18] carried out a series of experiments to investigate the effect of breaching geometry on both non-cohesive and cohesive embankment dams in a U-bend flume due to overtopping flows. In the case of non-cohesive embankments, the non-symmetrical lateral expansion was noticed during the breach formation. This expansion was described by a coefficient ranging from 2.7 to 3.3.

The numerical models of the dam breach can be categorized according to different parameters, such as flow dimensions (1D, 2D, or 3D), flow governing equations, and solution methods. The 1D models are mainly used to predict the outflow hydrograph from the dam breach. Saberi et al. [19] applied the 1D Saint-Venant equation, which is solved by the finite difference method to investigate the outflow hydrograph during dam overtopping failure. Because of the ability to study dam profile evolution and breach formation, 2D models are more applicable than 1D models. Guan et al. [20] and Wu et al. [21] employed both 2D shallow water equations (SWEs) and sediment erosion equations, which are solved by the finite volume method to study the effect of the dam’s geometry parameters on outflow hydrograph and dam profile evolution. Wang et al. [22] also proposed a second-order hybrid-type of total variation diminishing (TVD) finite-difference to estimate the breach outflow by solving the 2D (SWEs). The accuracy of (SWEs) for both vertical flow contraction and surface roughness has been assessed [23]. They noted that the accuracy of (SWEs) is acceptable for milder slopes, but in the case of steeper slopes, modelers should be more careful. Generally, the accuracy of 2D models is still low, especially with velocity distribution over the flow depth, lateral momentum exchange, density-driven flows, and bottom friction [24]. Therefore, 3D models are preferred. Larocque et al. [25] and Yang et al. [26] started to use three-dimensional (3D) models that depend on the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations.

Previous experimental studies concluded that there is no clear relationship between the peak outflow from the dam breach and the initial breach characteristics. Some of these studies depend on the sharp-crested weir fixed at the end of the flume to determine the peak outflow from the breach, which leads to a decrease in the accuracy of outflow calculations at the microscale. The main goals of this study are to carry out a numerical simulation for a spatial dam breach due to overtopping flows by using (FLOW-3D) software to find an empirical equation for the peak outflow discharge from the breach and determine the worst-case that leads to accelerating the dam breaching process.

2. Numerical simulation

The current study for spatial dam breach is simulated by using (FLOW-3D) software [27], which is a powerful computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program.

2.1. Geometric presentations

A stereolithographic (STL) file is prepared for each change in the initial breach geometry and dimensions. The CAD program is useful for creating solid objects and converting them to STL format, as shown in Fig. 1.

2.2. Governing equations

The governing equations for water flow are three-dimensional Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANS).

The continuity equation:(2)∂ui∂xi=0

The momentum equation:(3)∂ui∂t+1VFuj∂ui∂xj=1ρ∂∂xj-pδij+ν∂ui∂xj+∂uj∂xi-ρu`iu`j¯

where u is time-averaged velocity,ν is kinematic viscosity, VF is fractional volume open to flow, p is averaged pressure and -u`iu`j¯ are components of Reynold’s stress. The Volume of Fluid (VOF) technique is used to simulate the free surface profile. Hirt et al. [28] presented the VOF algorithm, which employs the function (F) to express the occupancy of each grid cell with fluid. The value of (F) varies from zero to unity. Zero value refers to no fluid in the grid cell, while the unity value refers to the grid cell being fully occupied with fluid. The free surface is formed in the grid cells having (F) values between zero and unity.(4)∂F∂t+1VF∂∂xFAxu+∂∂yFAyv+∂∂zFAzw=0

where (u, v, w) are the velocity components in (x, y, z) coordinates, respectively, and (A_x, A_y, A_z) are the area fractions.

2.3. Boundary and initial conditions

To improve the accuracy of the results, the boundary conditions should be carefully determined. In this study, two mesh blocks are used to minimize the time consumed in the simulation. The boundary conditions for mesh block 1 are as follows: The inlet and sides boundaries are defined as a wall boundary condition (wall boundary condition is usually used for bound fluid by solid regions. In the case of viscous flows, no-slip means that the tangential velocity is equal to the wall velocity and the normal velocity is zero), the outlet is defined as a symmetry boundary condition (symmetry boundary condition is usually used to reduce computational effort during CFD simulation. This condition allows the flow to be transferred from one mesh block to another. No inputs are required for this boundary condition except that its location should be defined accurately), the bottom boundary is defined as a uniform flow rate boundary condition, and the top boundary is defined as a specific pressure boundary condition with assigned atmospheric pressure. The boundary conditions for mesh block 2 are as follows: The inlet is defined as a symmetry boundary condition, the outlet is defined as a free flow boundary condition, the bottom and sides boundaries are defined as a wall boundary condition, and the top boundary is defined as a specific pressure boundary condition with assigned atmospheric pressure as shown in Fig. 2. The initial conditions required to be set for the fluid (i.e., water) inside of the domain include configuration, temperature, velocities, and pressure distribution. The configuration of water depends on the dimensions and shape of the dam reservoir. While the other conditions have been assigned as follows: temperature is normal water temperature (25 °c) and pressure distribution is hydrostatic with no initial velocity.

2.4. Numerical method

FLOW-3D uses the finite volume method (FVM) to solve the governing equation (Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes) over the computational domain. A finite-volume method is an Eulerian approach for representing and evaluating partial differential equations in algebraic equations form [29]. At discrete points on the mesh geometry, values are determined. Finite volume expresses a small volume surrounding each node point on a mesh. In this method, the divergence theorem is used to convert volume integrals with a divergence term to surface integrals. After that, these terms are evaluated as fluxes at each finite volume’s surfaces.

2.5. Turbulent models

Turbulence is the chaotic, unstable motion of fluids that occurs when there are insufficient stabilizing viscous forces. In FLOW-3D, there are six turbulence models available: the Prandtl mixing length model, the one-equation turbulent energy model, the two-equation (k – ε) model, the Renormalization-Group (RNG) model, the two-equation (k – ω) models, and a large eddy simulation (LES) model. For simulating flow motion, the RNG model is adopted to simulate the motion behavior better than the k – ε and k – ω.

models [30]. The RNG model consists of two main equations for the turbulent kinetic energy KT and its dissipation.εT(5)∂kT∂t+1VFuAx∂kT∂x+vAy∂kT∂y+wAz∂kT∂z=PT+GT+DiffKT-εT(6)∂εT∂t+1VFuAx∂εT∂x+vAy∂εT∂y+wAz∂εT∂z=C1.εTKTPT+c3.GT+Diffε-c2εT2kT

where KT is the turbulent kinetic energy, PT is the turbulent kinetic energy production, GT is the buoyancy turbulence energy, εT is the turbulent energy dissipation rate, DiffKT and Diffε are terms of diffusion, c1, c2 and c3 are dimensionless parameters, in which c1 and c3 have a constant value of 1.42 and 0.2, respectively, c2 is computed from the turbulent kinetic energy (KT) and turbulent production (PT) terms.

2.6. Sediment scour model

The sediment scour model available in FLOW-3D can calculate all the sediment transport processes including Entrainment transport, Bedload transport, Suspended transport, and Deposition. The erosion process starts once the water flows remove the grains from the packed bed and carry them into suspension. It happens when the applied shear stress by water flows exceeds critical shear stress. This process is represented by entrainment transport in the numerical model. After entrained, the grains carried by water flow are represented by suspended load transport. After that, some suspended grains resort to settling because of the combined effect of gravity, buoyancy, and friction. This process is described through a deposition. Finally, the grains sliding motions are represented by bedload transport in the model. For the entrainment process, the shear stress applied by the fluid motion on the packed bed surface is calculated using the standard wall function as shown in Eq.7.(7)ks,i=Cs,i∗d50

where ks,i is the Nikuradse roughness and Cs,i is a user-defined coefficient. The critical bed shear stress is defined by a dimensionless parameter called the critical shields number as expressed in Eq.8.(8)θcr,i=τcr,i‖g‖diρi-ρf

where θcr,i is the critical shields number, τcr,i is the critical bed shear stress, g is the absolute value of gravity acceleration, di is the diameter of the sediment grain, ρi is the density of the sediment species (i) and ρf is the density of the fluid. The value of the critical shields number is determined according to the Soulsby-Whitehouse equation.(9)θcr,i=0.31+1.2d∗,i+0.0551-exp-0.02d∗,i

where d∗,i is the dimensionless diameter of the sediment, given by Eq.10.(10)d∗,i=diρfρi-ρf‖g‖μf213

where μf is the fluid dynamic viscosity. For the sloping bed interface, the value of the critical shields number is modified according to Eq.11.(11)θ`cr,i=θcr,icosψsinβ+cos2βtan2φi-sin2ψsin2βtanφi

where θ`cr,i is the modified critical shields number, φi is the angle of repose for the sediment, β is the angle of bed slope and ψ is the angle between the flow and the upslope direction. The effects of the rolling, hopping, and sliding motions of grains along the packed bed surface are taken by the bedload transport process. The volumetric bedload transport rate (qb,i) per width of the bed is expressed in Eq.12.(12)qb,i=Φi‖g‖ρi-ρfρfdi312

where Φi is the dimensionless bedload transport rate is calculated by using Meyer Peter and Müller equation.(13)Φi=βMPM,iθi-θ`cr,i1.5cb,i

where βMPM,i is the Meyer Peter and Müller user-defined coefficient and cb,i is the volume fraction of species i in the bed material. The suspended load transport is calculated as shown in Eq.14.(14)∂Cs,i∂t+∇∙Cs,ius,i=∇∙∇DCs,i

where Cs,i is the suspended sediment mass concentration, D is the diffusivity, and us,i is the grain velocity of species i. Entrainment and deposition are two opposing processes that take place at the same time. The lifting and settling velocities for both entrainment and deposition processes are calculated according to Eq.15 and Eq.16, respectively.(15)ulifting,i=αid∗,i0.3θi-θ`cr,igdiρiρf-1(16)usettling,i=υfdi10.362+1.049d∗,i3-10.36

where αi is the entrainment coefficient of species i and υf is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

2.7. Grid type

Using simple rectangular orthogonal elements in planes and hexahedral in volumes in the (FLOW-3D) program makes the mesh generation process easier, decreases the required memory, and improves numerical accuracy. Two mesh blocks were used in a joined form with a size ratio of 2:1. The first mesh block is coarser, which contains the reservoir water, and the second mesh block is finer, which contains the dam. For achieving accuracy and efficiency in results, the mesh size is determined by using a grid convergence test. The optimum uniform cell size for the first mesh block is 0.012 m and for the second mesh block is 0.006 m.

2.8. Time step

The maximum time step size is determined by using a Courant number, which controls the distance that the flow will travel during the simulation time step. In this study, the Courant number was taken equal to 0.25 to prevent the flow from traveling through more than one cell in the time step. Based on the Courant number, a maximum time step value of 0.00075 s was determined.

2.9. Numerical model validation

The numerical model accuracy was achieved by comparing the numerical model results with previous experimental results. The experimental study of Schmocker and Hager [7] was based on 31 tests with changes in six parameters (d₅₀, H_o, B_o, L_k, X_D, and Q_in). All experimental tests were conducted in a straight open glass-sided flume. The horizontal flume has a rectangular cross-section with a width of 0.4 m and a height of 0.7 m. The flume was provided with a flow straightener and an intake with a length of 0.66 m. All tested dams were inserted at various distances (X_D) from the intake. Test No.1 from this experimental program was chosen to validate the numerical model. The different parameters used in test No.1 are as follows:

(1) uniform sediment with a mean diameter (d₅₀ = 0.31 mm), (2) H_o = 0.2 m, (3) B_o = 0.2 m, (4) L_k = 0.1 m,

(5) X_D = 1.0 m, (6) Q_in = 6.0 lit/s, (7) S_u and S_d = 2:1, (8) mass density (ρ_s = 2650 kg/m³) (9) Homogenous and non-cohesive embankment dam. As shown in Fig. 2, the simulation is contained within a rectangular grid with dimensions: 3.56 m in the x-direction (where 0.66 m is used as inlet, 0.9 m as dam base width, and 1.0 m as outlet), in y-direction 0.2 m (dam length), and in the z-direction 0.3 m, which represents the dam height (0.2 m) with a free distance (0.1 m) above the dam. There are two main reasons that this experimental program is preferred for the validation process. The first reason is that this program deals with homogenous, non-cohesive soil, which is available in FLOW-3D. The second reason is that this program deals with small-scale models which saves time for numerical simulation. Finally, some important assumptions were considered during the validation process. The flow is assumed to be incompressible, viscous, turbulent, and three-dimensional.

By comparing dam profiles at different time instants for the experimental test with the current numerical model, it appears that the numerical model gives good agreement as shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, with an average error percentage of 9% between the experimental results and the numerical model.

3. Analysis and discussions

The current model is used to study the effects of different parameters such as (initial breach shapes, dimensions, locations, upstream and downstream dam slopes) on the peak outflow discharge, Q_P, time of peak outflow, t_P, and rate of erosion, E.

This study consists of a group of scenarios. The first scenario is changing the shapes of the initial breach according to Singh [1], the most predicted shapes are rectangular and V-notch as shown in Fig. 5. The second scenario is changing the initial breach dimensions (i.e., width and depth). While the third scenario is changing the location of the initial breach. Eventually, the last scenario is changing the upstream and downstream dam slopes.

All scenarios of this study were carried out under the same conditions such as inflow discharge value (Qin=1.0lit/s), dimensions of the tested dam, where dam height (Ho=0.20m), crest width.

(Lk=0.1m), dam length (Bo=0.20m), and homogenous & non-cohesive soil with a mean diameter (d50=0.31mm).

3.1. Dam breaching process evolution

The dam breaching process is a very complex process due to the quick changes in hydrodynamic conditions during dam failure. The dam breaching process starts once water flows reach the downstream face of the dam. During the initial stage of dam breaching, the erosion process is relatively quiet due to low velocities of flow. As water flows continuously, erosion rates increase, especially in two main zones: the crest and the downstream face. As soon as the dam crest is totally eroded, the water levels in the dam reservoir decrease rapidly, accompanied by excessive erosion in the dam body. The erosion process continues until the water levels in the dam reservoir equal the remaining height of the dam.

According to Zhou et al. [11], the breaching process consists of three main stages. The first stage starts with beginning overtopping flow, then ends when the erosion point directed upstream and reached the inflection point at the inflection time (ti). The second stage starts from the end of the stage1 until the occurrence of peak outflow discharge at the peak outflow time (tP). The third stage starts from the end of the stage2 until the value of outflow discharge becomes the same as the value of inflow discharge at the final time (tf). The outflow discharge from the dam breach increases rapidly during stage1 and stage2 because of the large dam storage capacity (i.e., the dam reservoir is totally full of water) and excessive erosion. While at stage3, the outflow values start to decrease slowly because most of the dam’s storage capacity was run out. The end of stage3 indicates that the dam storage capacity was totally run out, so the outflow equalized with the inflow discharge as shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.

3.2. The effect of initial breach shape

To identify the effect of the initial breach shape on the evolution of the dam breaching process. Three tests were carried out with different cross-section areas for each shape. The initial breach is created at the center of the dam crest. Each test had an ID to make the process of arranging data easier. The rectangular shape had an ID (Rec5h & 5b), which means that its depth and width are equal to 5% of the dam height, and the V-notch shape had an ID (V-noch5h & 1:1) which means that its depth is equal to 5% of the dam height and its side slope is equal to 1:1. The comparison between rectangular and V-notch shapes is done by calculating the ratio between maximum dam height at different times (Z_Max) to the initial dam height (H_o), rate of erosion, and hydrograph of outflow discharge for each test. The rectangular shape achieves maximum erosion rate and minimum inflection time, in addition to a rapid decrease in the dam reservoir levels. Therefore, the dam breaching is faster in the case of a rectangular shape than in a V-notch shape, which has the same cross-section area as shown in Fig. 8.

Also, by comparing the hydrograph for each test, the peak outflow discharge value in the case of a rectangular shape is higher than the V-notch shape by 5% and the time of peak outflow for the rectangular shape is shorter than the V-notch shape by 9% as shown in Fig. 9.

3.3. The effect of initial breach dimensions

The results of the comparison between the different initial breach shapes indicate that the worst initial breach shape is rectangular, so the second scenario from this study concentrated on studying the effect of a change in the initial rectangular breach dimensions. Groups of tests were carried out with different depths and widths for the rectangular initial breach. The first group had a depth of 5% from the dam height and with three different widths of 5,10, and 15% from the dam height, the second group had a depth of 10% with three different widths of 5,10, and 15%, the third group had a depth of 15% with three different widths of 5,10, and 15% and the final group had a width of 15% with three different heights of 5, 10, and 15% for a rectangular breach shape. The comparison was made as in the previous section to determine the worst case that leads to the quick dam failure as shown in Fig. 10.

The results show that the (Rec 5 h&15b) test achieves a maximum erosion rate for a shorter period of time and a minimum ratio for (Z_max / H_o) as shown in Fig. 10, which leads to accelerating the dam failure process. The dam breaching process is faster with the minimum initial breach depth and maximum initial breach width. In the case of a minimum initial breach depth, the retained head of water in the dam reservoir is high and the crest width at the bottom of the initial breach (L`K) is small, so the erosion point reaches the inflection point rapidly. While in the case of the maximum initial breach width, the erosion perimeter is large.

3.4. The effect of initial breach location

The results of the comparison between the different initial rectangular breach dimensions indicate that the worst initial breach dimension is (Rec 5 h&15b), so the third scenario from this study concentrated on studying the effect of a change in the initial breach location. Three locations were checked to determine the worst case for the dam failure process. The first location is at the center of the dam crest, which was named “Center”, the second location is at mid-distance between the dam center and dam edge, which was named “Mid”, and the third location is at the dam edge, which was named “Edge” as shown in Fig. 11. According to this scenario, the results indicate that the time of peak outflow discharge (tP) is the same in the three cases, but the maximum value of the peak outflow discharge occurs at the center location. The difference in the peak outflow values between the three cases is relatively small as shown in Fig. 12.

The rates of erosion were also studied for the three cases. The results show that the maximum erosion rate occurs at the center location as shown in Fig. 13. By making a comparison between the three cases for the dam storage volume. The results show that the center location had the minimum values for the dam storage volume, which means that a large amount of water has passed to the downstream area as shown in Fig. 14. According to these results, the center location leads to increased erosion rate and accelerated dam failure process compared with the two other cases. Because the erosion occurs on both sides, but in the case of edge location, the erosion occurs on one side.

3.5. The effect of upstream and downstream dam slopes

The results of the comparison between the different initial rectangular breach locations indicate that the worst initial breach location is the center location, so the fourth scenario from this study concentrated on studying the effect of a change in the upstream (S_u) and downstream (S_d) dam slopes. Three slopes were checked individually for both upstream and downstream slopes to determine the worst case for the dam failure process. The first slope value is (2H:1V), the second slope value is (2.5H:1V), and the third slope value is (3H:1V). According to this scenario, the results show that the decreasing downstream slope angle leads to increasing time of peak outflow discharge (tP) and decreasing value of peak outflow discharge. The difference in the peak outflow values between the three cases for the downstream slope is 2%, as shown in Fig. 15, but changing the upstream slope has a negligible impact on the peak outflow discharge and its time as shown in Fig. 16.

The rates of erosion were also studied in the three cases for both upstream and downstream slopes. The results show that the maximum erosion rate increases by 6.0% with an increasing downstream slope angle by 4°, as shown in Fig. 17. The results also indicate that the erosion rates aren’t affected by increasing or decreasing the upstream slope angle, as shown in Fig. 18. According to these results, increasing the downstream slope angle leads to increased erosion rate and accelerated dam failure process compared with the upstream slope angle. Because of increasing shear stress applied by water flows in case of increasing downstream slope.

According to all previous scenarios, the dimensionless peak outflow discharge QPQin is presented for a fixed dam height (H_o) and inflow discharge (Q_in). Fig. 19 illustrates the relationship between QP∗=QPQin and.

Lr=ho2/3∗bo2/3Ho. The deduced relationship achieves R2=0.96.(17)QP∗=2.2807exp-2.804∗Lr

4. Conclusions

A spatial dam breaching process was simulated by using FLOW-3D Software. The validation process was performed by making a comparison between the simulated results of dam profiles and the dam profiles obtained by Schmocker and Hager [7] in their experimental study. And also, the peak outflow value recorded an error percentage of 12% between the numerical model and the experimental study. This model was used to study the effect of initial breach shape, dimensions, location, and dam slopes on peak outflow discharge, time of peak outflow, and the erosion process. By using the parameters obtained from the validation process, the results of this study can be summarized in eight points as follows.1.

The rectangular initial breach shape leads to an accelerating dam failure process compared with the V-notch.2.

The value of peak outflow discharge in the case of a rectangular initial breach is higher than the V-notch shape by 5%.3.

The time of peak outflow discharge for a rectangular initial breach is shorter than the V-notch shape by 9%.4.

The minimum depth and maximum width for the initial breach achieve maximum erosion rates (increasing breach width, b0, or decreasing breach depth, h0, by 5% from the dam height leads to an increase in the maximum rate of erosion by 11% and 15%, respectively), so the dam failure is rapid.5.

The center location of the initial breach leads to an accelerating dam failure compared with the edge location.6.

The initial breach location has a negligible effect on the peak outflow discharge value and its time.7.

Increasing the downstream slope angle by 4° leads to an increase in both peak outflow discharge and maximum rate of erosion by 2.0% and 6.0%, respectively.8.

The upstream slope has a negligible effect on the dam breaching process.

References

[1]V. SinghDam breach modeling technologySpringer Science & Business Media (1996)Google Scholar [2]Wahl TL. Prediction of embankment dam breach parameters: a literature review and needs assessment. 1998.Google Scholar [3]Z. Alhasan, J. Jandora, J. ŘíhaStudy of dam-break due to overtopping of four small dams in the Czech RepublicActa Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 63 (3) (2015), pp. 717-729 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [4]D. FreadBREACH, an erosion model for earthen dam failures: Hydrologic Research LaboratoryNOAA, National Weather Service (1988)Google Scholar [5]J. Říha, S. Kotaška, L. PetrulaDam Break Modeling in a Cascade of Small Earthen Dams: Case Study of the Čižina River in the Czech RepublicWater, 12 (8) (2020), p. 2309, 10.3390/w12082309 View PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [6]E. Goodarzi, L. Teang Shui, M. ZiaeiDam overtopping risk using probabilistic concepts–Case study: The Meijaran DamIran Ain Shams Eng J, 4 (2) (2013), pp. 185-197Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [7]L. Schmocker, W.H. HagerPlane dike-breach due to overtopping: effects of sediment, dike height and dischargeJ Hydraul Res, 50 (6) (2012), pp. 576-586 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [8]J.S. Walder, R.M. Iverson, J.W. Godt, M. Logan, S.A. SolovitzControls on the breach geometry and flood hydrograph during overtopping of noncohesive earthen damsWater Resour Res, 51 (8) (2015), pp. 6701-6724View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [9]H. Wei, M. Yu, D. Wang, Y. LiOvertopping breaching of river levees constructed with cohesive sedimentsNat Hazards Earth Syst Sci, 16 (7) (2016), pp. 1541-1551 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [10]Y. Yang, S.-Y. Cao, K.-J. Yang, W.-P. LiYang K-j, Li W-p. Experimental study of breach process of landslide dams by overtopping and its initiation mechanismsJ Hydrodynamics, 27 (6) (2015), pp. 872-883Article Download PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [11]G.G.D. Zhou, M. Zhou, M.S. Shrestha, D. Song, C.E. Choi, K.F.E. Cui, et al.Experimental investigation on the longitudinal evolution of landslide dam breaching and outburst floodsGeomorphology, 334 (2019), pp. 29-43Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [12]J. Zhang, Z.-x. Guo, S.-y. CaoYang F-g. Experimental study on scour and erosion of blocked damWater Sci Eng, 5 (2012), pp. 219-229Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [13]K. Höeg, A. Løvoll, K. VaskinnStability and breaching of embankment dams: Field tests on 6 m high damsInt J Hydropower Dams, 11 (2004), pp. 88-92View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [14]H. Hakimzadeh, V. Nourani, A.B. AminiGenetic programming simulation of dam breach hydrograph and peak outflow dischargeJ Hydrol Eng, 19 (4) (2014), pp. 757-768View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [15]A.R. Refaiy, N.M. AboulAtta, N.Y. Saad, D.A. El-MollaModeling the effect of downstream drain geometry on seepage through earth damsAin Shams Eng J, 12 (3) (2021), pp. 2511-2531Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [16]Y. Zhu, P.J. Visser, J.K. Vrijling, G. WangExperimental investigation on breaching of embankmentsScience China Technological Sci, 54 (1) (2011), pp. 148-155 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [17]M.-H. Yu, H.-Y. Wei, Y.-J. Liang, Y. ZhaoInvestigation of non-cohesive levee breach by overtopping flowJ Hydrodyn, 25 (4) (2013), pp. 572-579Article Download PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [18]S. Wu, M. Yu, H. Wei, Y. Liang, J. ZengNon-symmetrical levee breaching processes in a channel bend due to overtoppingInt J Sedim Res, 33 (2) (2018), pp. 208-215Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [19]O. Saberi, G. ZenzNumerical investigation on 1D and 2D embankment dams failure due to overtopping flowInt J Hydraulic Engineering, 5 (2016), pp. 9-18View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [20]M. Guan, N.G. Wright, P.A. Sleigh2D Process-Based Morphodynamic Model for Flooding by Noncohesive Dyke BreachJ Hydraul Eng, 140 (7) (2014), p. 04014022, 10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000861 View PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [21]W. Wu, R. Marsooli, Z. HeDepth-Averaged Two-Dimensional Model of Unsteady Flow and Sediment Transport due to Noncohesive Embankment Break/BreachingJ Hydraul Eng, 138 (6) (2012), pp. 503-516View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [22]Z. Wang, D.S. BowlesThree-dimensional non-cohesive earthen dam breach model. Part 1: Theory and methodologyAdv Water Resour, 29 (10) (2006), pp. 1528-1545Article Download PDF View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [23]Říha J, Duchan D, Zachoval Z, Erpicum S, Archambeau P, Pirotton M, et al. Performance of a shallow-water model for simulating flow over trapezoidal broad-crested weirs. J Hydrology Hydromechanics. 2019;67:322-8.Google Scholar [24]C.B. VreugdenhilNumerical methods for shallow-water flowSpringer Science & Business Media (1994)Google Scholar [25]L.A. Larocque, J. Imran, M.H. Chaudhry3D numerical simulation of partial breach dam-break flow using the LES and k–∊ turbulence modelsJ Hydraul Res, 51 (2) (2013), pp. 145-157 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [26]C. Yang, B. Lin, C. Jiang, Y. LiuPredicting near-field dam-break flow and impact force using a 3D modelJ Hydraul Res, 48 (6) (2010), pp. 784-792 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [27]FLOW-3D. Version 11.1.1 Flow Science, Inc., Santa Fe, NM. https://wwwflow3dcom.Google Scholar [28]C.W. Hirt, B.D. NicholsVolume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundariesJ Comput Phys, 39 (1) (1981), pp. 201-225Article Download PDF Google Scholar [29]S.V. PatankarNumerical heat transfer and fluid flow, Hemisphere PublCorp, New York, 58 (1980), p. 288View Record in Scopus Google Scholar [30]M. Alemi, R. MaiaNumerical simulation of the flow and local scour process around single and complex bridge piersInt J Civil Eng, 16 (5) (2018), pp. 475-487 View PDF CrossRef View Record in Scopus Google Scholar

PDF 전체 원문 보기

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions.

Experimental and numerical study of flow at a 90 degree lateral turnout with enhanced roughness coefficient and invert level changes

조도 계수 및 역전 수준 변화가 개선된 90도 측면 분출구에서의 유동에 대한 실험적 및 수치적 연구

Maryam Bagheri; Seyed M. Ali Zomorodian; Masih Zolghadr; H. Md. Azamathulla; C. Venkata Siva Rama Prasad

Abstract

측면 분기기(흡입구)의 상류 측에서 흐름 분리는 분기기 입구에서 와류를 일으키는 중요한 문제입니다. 이는 흐름의 유효 폭, 출력 용량 및 효율성을 감소시킵니다. 따라서 분리지대의 크기를 파악하고 크기를 줄이기 위한 방안을 제시하는 것이 필수적이다. 본 연구에서는 분리 구역의 치수를 줄이기 위한 방법으로 7가지 유형의 거칠기 요소를 분기구 입구에 설치하고 4가지 다른 배출(총 84번의 실험을 수행)과 함께 3개의 서로 다른 베드 반전 레벨을 조사했습니다. 또한 3D CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) 모델을 사용하여 분리 영역의 흐름 패턴과 치수를 평가했습니다. 결과는 거칠기 계수를 향상시키면 분리 영역 치수를 최대 38%까지 줄일 수 있는 반면, 드롭 구현 효과는 사용된 거칠기 계수를 기반으로 이 영역을 다르게 축소할 수 있음을 보여주었습니다. 두 가지 방법을 결합하면 분리 영역 치수를 최대 63%까지 줄일 수 있습니다.

Flow separation at the upstream side of lateral turnouts (intakes) is a critical issue causing eddy currents at the turnout entrance. It reduces the effective width of flow, turnout capacity and efficiency. Therefore, it is essential to identify the dimensions of the separation zone and propose remedies to reduce its dimensions. Installation of 7 types of roughening elements at the turnout entrance and 3 different bed invert levels, with 4 different discharges (making a total of 84 experiments) were examined in this study as a method to reduce the dimensions of the separation zone. Additionally, a 3-D Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model was utilized to evaluate the flow pattern and dimensions of the separation zone. Results showed that enhancing the roughness coefficient can reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 38% while the drop implementation effect can scale down this area differently based on the roughness coefficient used. Combining both methods can reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 63%.

HIGHLIGHTS

Listen

Flow separation at the upstream side of lateral turnouts (intakes) is a critical issue causing eddy currents at the turnout entrance.
Installation of 7 types of roughening elements at the turnout entrance and 3 different bed level inverts were investigated.
Additionally, a 3-D Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model was utilized to evaluate the flow.
Combining both methods can reduce the separation zone dimensions by up to 63%.

Experimental and numerical study of flow at a 90 degree lateral turnout with enhanced roughness coefficient and invert level changes

Keywords

discharge ratio, flow separation zone, intake, three dimensional simulation

INTRODUCTION

Listen

Turnouts or intakes are amongst the oldest and most widely used hydraulic structures in irrigation networks. Turnouts are also used in water distribution, transmission networks, power generation facilities, and waste water treatment plants etc. The flows that enter a turnout have a strong momentum in the direction of the main waterway and that is why flow separation occurs inside the turnout. The horizontal vortex formed in the separation area is a suitable place for accumulation and deposition of sediments. The separation zone is a vulnerable area for sedimentation and for reduction of effective flow due to a contracted flow region in the lateral channel. Sedimentaion in the entrance of the intake can gradually be transfered into the lateral channel and decrease the capacity of the higher order channels over time (Jalili et al. 2011). On the other hand, the existence of coarse-grained materials causes erosion and destruction of the waterway side walls and bottom. In addition, sedimentation creates conditions for vegetation to take root and damage the waterway cover, which causes water to leak from its perimeter. Therefore, it is important to investigate the pattern of the flow separation area in turnouts and provide solutions to reduce the dimensions of this area.

The three-dimensional flow structure at turnouts is quite complex. In an experimental study by Neary & Odgaard (1993) in a 90-degree water turnout it was found that the secondary currents and separation zone varies from the bed to the water surface. They also found that at a 90-degree water turnout, the bed roughness and discharge ratio play a critical role in flow structure. They asserted that an explanation of sediment behavior at a diversion entrance requires a comprehensive understanding of 3D flow patterns around the lateral-channel entrance. In addition, they suggested that there is a strong similarity between flow in a channel bend and a diversion channel, and that this similarity can rationalize the use of bend flow models for estimation of 3D flow structures in diversion channels.

Some of the distinctive characteristics of dividing flow in a turnout include a zone of separation immediately near the entrance of the lateral turnout (separation zone), a contracted flow region in the branch channel (contracted flow), and a stagnation point near the downstream corner of the junction (stagnation zone). In the region downstream of the junction, along the continuous far wall, separation due to flow expansion may occur (Ramamurthy et al. 2007), that is, a separation zone. This can both reduce the turnout efficiency and the effective width of flow while increasing the sediment deposition in the turnout entrance (Jalili et al. 2011). Installation of submerged vanes in the turnout entrance is a method which is already applied to reduce the size of flow separation zones. The separation zone draws sediments and floating materials into themselves. This reduces effective cross-section area and reduces transmission capacity. These results have also been obtained in past studies, including by Ramamurthy et al. (2007) and in Jalili et al. (2011). Submerged vanes (Iowa vanes) are designed in order to modify the near-bed flow pattern and bed-sediment motion in the transverse direction of the river. The vanes are installed vertically on the channel bed, at an angle of attack which is usually oriented at 10–25 degrees to the local primary flow direction. Vane height is typically 0.2–0.5 times the local water depth during design flow conditions and vane length is 2–3 times its height (Odgaard & Wang 1991). They are vortex-generating devices that generate secondary circulation, thereby redistributing sediment within the channel cross section. Several factors affect the flow separation zone such as the ratio of lateral turnout discharge to main channel discharge, angle of lateral channel with respect to the main channel flow direction and size of applied submerged vanes. Nakato et al. (1990) found that sediment management using submerged vanes in the turnout entrance to Station 3 of the Council Bluffs plant, located on the Missouri River, is applicable and efficient. The results show submerged vanes are an appropriate solution for reduction of sediment deposition in a turnout entrance. The flow was treated as 3D and tests results were obtained for the flow characteristics of dividing flows in a 90-degree sharp-edged, junction. The main and lateral channel were rectangular with the same dimensions (Ramamurthy et al., 2007).

Keshavarzi & Habibi (2005) carried out experiments on intake with angles of 45, 67, 79 and 90 degrees in different discharge ratios and reported the optimum angle for inlet flow with the lowest flow separation area to be about 55 degrees. The predicted flow characteristics were validated using experimental data. The results indicated that the width and length of the separation zone increases with the increase in the discharge ratio Qr (ratio of outflow per unit width in the turnout to inflow per unit width in the main channel).

Abbasi et al. (2004) performed experiments to investigate the dimensions of the flow separation zone at a lateral turnout entrance. They demonstrated that the length and width of the separation zone decreases with the increasing ratio of lateral turn-out discharge. They also found that with a reducing angle of lateral turnout, the length of the separation zone scales up and width of separation zone reduces. Then they compared their observations with results of Kasthuri & Pundarikanthan (1987) who conducted some experiments in an open-channel junction formed by channels of equal width and an angle of lateral 90 degree turnout, which showed the dimensions of the separation zone in their experiments to be smaller than in previous studies. Kasthuri & Pundarikanthan (1987) studied vortex and flow separation dimensions at the entrance of a 90 degree channel. Results showed that increasing the diversion discharge ratio can reduce the length and width of the vortex area. They also showed that the length and width of the vortex area remain constant at diversion ratios greater than 0.7. Karami Moghaddam & Keshavarzi (2007) analyzed the flow characteristics in turnouts with angles of 55 and 90 degrees. They reported that the dimensions of the separation zone decrease by increasing the discharge ratio and reducing the turnout angle with respect to the main channel. Studies about flow separation zone can be found in Jalili et al. (2011), Nikbin & Borghei (2011), Seyedian et al. (2008).

Jamshidi et al. (2016) measured the dimensions of a flow separation zone in the presence of submerged vanes with five arrangements (parallel, stagger, compound, piney and butterflies). Results showed that the ratio of the width to the length of the separation zone (shape index) was between 0.2 and 0.28 for all arrangements.

Karami et al. (2017) developed a 3D computational fluid dynamic (CFD) code which was calibrated by measured data. They used the model to evaluate flow pattern, diversion ratio of discharge, strength of the secondary flow, and dimensions of the vortex inside the channel in various dikes and submerged vane installation scenarios. Results showed that the diversion ratio of discharge in the diversion channel is dependent on the width of the flow separation area in the main channel. A dike, perpendicular to the flow, doubles the ratio of diverted discharge and reduces the suspended sediment load compared with the base-line situation by creating outer arch conditions. In addition, increasing the longitudinal distance between vanes increases the velocity gradient between the vanes and leads to a more severe erosion of the bed near the vanes.Figure 1VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Laboratory channel dimensions.

Al-Zubaidy & Hilo (2021) used the Navier–Stokes equation to study the flow of incompressible fluids. Using the CFD software ANSYS Fluent 19.2, 3D flow patterns were simulated at a diversion channel. Their results showed good agreement using the comparison between the experimental and numerical results when the k-omega turbulence viscous model was employed. Simulation of the flow pattern was then done at the lateral channel junction using a variety of geometry designs. These improvements included changing the intake’s inclination angle and chamfering and rounding the inner corner of the intake mouth instead of the sharp edge. Flow parameters at the diversion including velocity streamlines, bed shear stress, and separation zone dimensions were computed in their study. The findings demonstrated that changing the 90° lateral intake geometry can improve the flow pattern and bed shear stress at the intake junction. Consequently, sedimentation and erosion problems are reduced. According to the conclusions of their study, a branching angle of 30° to 45° is the best configuration for increasing branching channel discharge, lowering branching channel sediment concentration.

The review of the literature shows that most of the studies deal with turnout angle, discharge ratio and implementation of vanes as techniques to reduce the area of the separation zone. This study examines the effect of roughness coefficient and drop implementation at the entrance of a 90-degree lateral turnout on the dimensions of the separation zone. As far as the authors are aware, these two variables have never been studied as a remedy to decrease the separation zone dimensions whilst enhancing turnout efficiency. Additionally, a three-dimensional numerical model is applied to simulate the flow pattern around the turnout. The numerical results are verified against experimental data.

METHOD

Experimental setup

Listen

The experiments were conducted in a 90 degree dividing flow laboratory channel. The main channel is 15 m long, 0.5 m wide and 0.4 m high and the branch channel is 3 m long, 0.35 m wide and 0.4 m high, as shown in Figure 1. The tests were carried out at 9.65 m from the beginning of the flume and were far enough from the inlet, so we were sure that the flow was fully developed. According to Kirkgöz & Ardiçlioğlu (1997) the length of the developing region would be approximantly 65 and 72 times the flow depth. In this study, the depth is 9 cm, which makes this condition.

Both the main and lateral channel had a slope of 0.0003 with side walls of concrete. A 100 hp pump discharged the water into a stilling basin at the entrance of the main flume. The discharge was measured using an ultrasonic discharge meter around the discharge pipe. Eighty-four experiments in total were carried out at range of 0.1<Fr<0.4 (Froude numbers in main channel and upstream of turnout). The depth of water in the main channel in the experiments was 9 cm, in which case the effect of surface tension can be considered; according to research by Zolghadr & Shafai Bejestan (2020) and Zolghadr et al. (2021), when the water depth is more than 6 cm, the effect of surface tension is reduced and can be ignored given that the separation phenomenon occurs in the boundary layer, the height of the roughness creates disturbances in growth and development of the boundary layer and, as a result, separation growth is also faced with disruption and its dimensions grow less compared to smooth surfaces. Similar conditions occur in case of drop implementation. A disturbance occurs in the growth of the boundary layer and as a result the separation zone dimensions decrease. In order to investigate the effect of roughness coefficient and drop implementation on the separation zone dimensions, four different discharges (16, 18, 21, 23 l/s) in subcritical conditions, seven Manning (Strickler) roughness coefficients (0.009, 0.011, 0.017, 0.023, 0.028, 0.030, 0.032) as shown in Figure 2 and three invert elevation differences between the main channel and lateral turnout invert (0, 5 and 10 cm) at the entrance of the turnout were considered. The Manning roughness coefficient values were selected based on available and feasible values for real conditions, so that 0.009 is equivalent to galvanized sheet roughness and selected for the baseline tests. 0.011 is for concrete with neat surface, 0.017 and 0.023 are for unfinished and gunite concrete respectively. 0.030 and 0.032 values are for concrete on irregular excavated rock (Chow 1959). The roughness coefficients were created by gluing sediment particles on a thin galvanized sheet which was installed at the upstream side of the lateral turnout. The values of roughness coefficients were calculated based on the Manning-Strickler formula. For this purpose, some uniformly graded sediment samples were prepared and the Manning roughness coefficient of each sample was determined with respect to the median size (D₅₀) value pasted into the Manning-Strickler formula. Some KMnO₄ was sifted in the main channel upstream to visualize and measure the dimensions of the separation zone. Consequently, when KMnO₄ approached the lateral turnout a photo of the separation zone was taken from a top view. All the experiments were recorded and several photos were taken during the experiment after stablishment of steady flow conditions. The photos were then imported to AutoCAD to measure the separation zone dimensions. Because all the shooting was done with a high-definition camera and it was possible to zoom in, the results are very accurate.Figure 2 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Roughness plates.

The velocity values were also recorded by a one-dimensional velocity meter at 15 cm distance from the turnout entrance and in transverse direction (perpendicular to the flow direction).

The water level was also measured by depth gauges with a accuracy of 0.1 mm, and velocity in one direction with a single-dimensional KENEK LP 1100 with an accuracy of ±0.02 m/s (0–1 m/s), ± 0.04 m/s (1–2 m/s), ± 0.08 m/s (2–4 m/s), ±0.10 m/s (4–5 m/s).

Numerical simulation

ListenA FLOW-3D numerical model was utilized as a solver of the Navier-Stokes equation to simulate the three-dimensional flow field at the entrance of the turnout. The governing equations included continuity momentum equations. The continuity equation, regardless of the density of the fluid in the form of Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z, is as follows:

(1)where u, v, and w represent the velocity components in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; A_x, A_y, and A_z are the surface flow fractions in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; V_F denotes flow volume fraction; r is the density of the fluid; t is time; and R_sor refers to the source of the mass. Equations (2)–(4) show momentum equations in x, y and z dimensions respectively :

(2)

(3)

(4)where G_x, G_y, and G_z are the accelerations caused by gravity in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; and f_x, f_y, and f_z are the accelerations caused by viscosity in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

The turbulence models used in this study were the renormalized group (RNG) models. Evaluation of the concordance of the mentioned models with experimental studies showed that the RNG model provides more accurate results.

Two blocks of mesh were used to simulate the main channels and lateral turnout. The meshes were denser in the vicinity of the entrance of the turnout in order to increase the accuracy of computations. Boundary conditions for the main mesh block included inflow for the channel entrance (volumetric flow rate), outflow for the channel exit, ‘wall’ for the bed and the right boundary and ‘symmetry’ for the top (free surface) and left boundaries (turnout). The side wall roughness coefficient was given to the software as the Manning number in surface roughness of any component. Considering the restrictions in the available processor, a main mesh block with appropriate mesh size was defined to simulate the main flow field in the channel, while the nested mesh-block technique was utilized to create a very dense solution field near the roughness plate in order to provide accurate results around the plates and near the entrance of the lateral turnout. This technique reduced the number of required mesh elements by up to 60% in comparison with the method in which the mesh size of the main solution field was decreased to the required extent.

The numerical outputs are verified against experimental data. The hydraulic characteristics of the experiment are shown in Table 1.Table 1

Hydraulic conditions of the flow

Q(L/s)	Fr	Y₁ (m)	Q₂/Q₁
16	0.449	0.09	0.22
18	0.335	0.09	0.61
21	0.242	0.09	0.71
23	0.180	0.09	1.04

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Experimental results

Listen

During the experiments, the dimensions of the separation zone were recorded with an HD camera. Some photos were imported to AutoCad software. Then, the separation zones dimensions were measured and compared in different scenarios.

At the beginning, the flow pattern in the separation zone for four different hydraulic conditions was studied for seven different Manning roughness coefficients from 0.009 to 0.032. To compare the obtained results, roughness of 0.009 was considered as the base line. The percentage of reduction in separation zone area in different roughness coefficients is shown in Figure 3. According to this figure, by increasing the roughness of the turnout side wall, the separation zone area ratio reduces (ratio of separation zone area to turnout area). In other words, in any desired Froud number, the highest dimensions of the separation zone area are related to the lowest roughness coefficients. In Figure 3, ‘A’ is the area of the separation zone and ‘A_i’ represents the total area of the turnout.Figure 3VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions.Figure 4 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions.

It should be mentioned that the separation zone dimensions change with depth, so that the area is larger at the surface than near the bed. This study measured the dimensions of this area at the surface. Figure 4 show exactly where the roughness elements were located.Figure 5 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison of separation zone for n=0.023 and n=0.032.

Figure 5 shows images of the separation zone at n=0.023 and n=0.032 as examples, and show that the separation area at n=0.032 is smaller than that of n=0.023.

The difference between the effect of the two 0.032 and 0.030 roughnesses is minor. In other words, the dimensions of the separation zone decreased by increasing roughness up to 0.030 and then remained with negligable changes.

In the next step, the effect of intake invert relative to the main stream (drop) on the dimensions of the separation zone was investigated. To do this, three different invert levels were considered: (1) without drop; (2) a 5 cm drop between the main canal and intake canal; and (3) a 10 cm drop between the main canal and intake canal. The without drop mode was considered as the control state. Figure 6 shows the effect of drop implementation on separation zone dimensions. Tables 2 and 3 show the reduced percentage of separation zone areas in 5 and 10 cm drop compared to no drop conditions as the base line. It was found that the best results were obtained when a 10 cm drop was implemented.Table 2

Decrease percentage of separation zone area in 5 cm drop

Fr	n=0.011	n=0.017	n=0.023	n=0.028	n=0.030	n=0.032
0.08	10.56	11.06	25.27	33.03	35.57	36.5
0.121	7.66	11.14	11.88	15.93	34.59	36.25
0.353	1.38	2.63	8.17	14.39	31.20	31.29
0.362	3	11.54	19.56	25.73	37.89	38.31

Table 3

Decrease percentage of separation zone area in 10 cm drop

Fr	n=0.011	n=0.017	n=0.023	n=0.028	n=0.030	n=0.032
0.047	4.30	8.75	23.47	31.22	34.96	35.13
0.119	11.01	13.16	15.02	21.48	39.45	40.68
0.348	3.89	5.71	9.82	16.09	29	30.96
0.354	2.84	10.44	18.42	25.45	35.68	35.76

Figure 6 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of drop implementation on separation zone dimensions.

The combined effect of drop and roughness is shown in Figure 7. According to this figure, by installing a drop structure at the entrance of the intake, the dimensions of the separation zone scales down in any desired roughness coefficient. Results indicated that by increasing the roughness coefficient or drop implementation individually, the separation zone area decreases up to 38 and 25% respectively. However, employing both techniques simultaneously can reduce the separation zone area up to 63% (Table 4). The reason for the reduction of the dimensions of the separation zone area by drop implementation can be attributed to the increase of discharge ratio. This reduces the dimensions of the separation zone area.Table 4

Reduction in percentage of combined effect of roughness and 10 cm drop

Qi	n=0.011	n=0.017	n=0.023	n=0.028	n=0.030	n=0.032
16	32.3	35.07	37.2	45.7	58.01	59.1
18	44.5	34.15	36.18	48.13	54.2	56.18
21	43.18	32.33	42.30	37.79	57.16	63.2
23	40.56	34.5	34.09	46.25	50.12	57.2

Figure 7VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Combined effect of roughness and drop on separation zone dimensions.

This method increases the discharge ratio (ratio of turnout to main channel discharge). The results are compatible with the literature. Some other researchers reported that increasing the discharge ratio can scale down the separation zone dimensions (Karami Moghaddam & Keshavarzi 2007; Ramamurthy et al. 2007). However, these researchers employed other methods to enhance the discharge ratio. Drop implementation is simple and applicable in practice, since there is normally an elevation difference between the main and lateral canal in irrigation networks to ensure gravity flow occurance.

Table 4 depicts the decrease in percentage of the separation zone compared to base line conditions in different arrangements of the combined tests.Figure 8VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Velocity profiles for various roughness coefficients along turnout width.

A comparison between the proposed methods introduced in this paper and traditional methods such as installation of submerged vanes, and changing the inlet geometry (angle, radius) was performed. Figure 8 shows the comparison of the results. The comparison shows that the new techniques can be highly influential and still practical. In this research, with no change in structural geometry (enhancement of roughness coefficient) or minor changes with respect to drop implementation, the dimensions of the separation zone are decreased noticeably. The velocity values were also recorded by a one-dimensional velocity meter at 15 cm distance from the turnout entrance and in a transverse direction (perpendicular to the flow direction). The results are shown in Figure 9.Figure 9VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions in numerical study.

Numerical results

Listen

This study examined the flow patterns around the entrance of a diversion channel due to various wall roughnesses in the diversion channel. Results indicated that increasing the discharge ratio in the main channel and diversion channel reduces the area of the separation zone in the diversion channel.Figure 10 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparision of the vortex area (software output) for three roughnesses (0.009, 0.023 and 0.032).A laboratory and numerical error rate of 0.2605 was calculated from the following formula,

where U_exp is the experimental result, Unum is the numerical result, and N is the number of data.

Figure 9 shows the effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions in numerical study. Figure 10 compares the vortex area (software output) for three roughnesses, 0.009, 0.023 and 0.032 and Figure 11 shows the flow lines (tecplot output) that indicate the effect of roughness on flow in the separation zone. Numerical analysis shows that by increasing the roughness coefficient, the dimensions of the separation zone area decrease, as shown in Figure 10 where the separation zone area at n=0.032 is less than the separation zone area at n=0.009.Figure 11 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison of vortex area in 3D mode (tecplot output) with two roughnesses (a) 0.009 and (b) 0.032.Figure 12 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Velocity vector for flow condition Q1/422 l/s, near surface.

The velocities intensified moving midway toward the turnout showing that the effective area is scaled down. The velocity values were almost equal to zero near the side walls as expected. As shown in Figure 12 the approach vortex area velocity decreases. Experimental and numerical measured velocity at x=0.15 m of the diversion channel compared in Figure 13 shows that away from the separation zone area, the velocity increases. All longitudinal velocity contours near the vortex area are distinctly different between different roughnesses. The separation zone is larger at less roughness both in length and width.Figure 13 VIEW LARGEDOWNLOAD SLIDE

Exprimental and numerical measured velocity.

CONCLUSION

Listen

This study introduces practical and feasible methods for enhancing turnout efficiency by reducing the separation zone dimensions. Increasing the roughness coefficient and implementation of inlet drop were considered as remedies for reduction of separation zone dimensions. A data set has been compiled that fully describes the complex, 3D flow conditions present in a 90 degree turnout channel for selected flow conditions. The aim of this numerical model was to compare the results of a laboratory model in the area of the separation zone and velocity. Results showed that enhancing roughness coefficient reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 38% while the drop implementation effect can scale down this area differently based on roughness coefficient used. Combining both methods can reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 63%. Further research is proposed to investigate the effect of roughness and drop implementation on sedimentation pattern at lateral turnouts. The dimensions of the separation zone decreases with the increase of the non-dimensional parameter, due to the reduction ratio of turnout discharge increasing in all the experiments.

This method increases the discharge ratio (ratio of turnout to main channel discharge). The results are compatible with the literature. Other researchers have reported that intensifying the discharge ratio can scale down the separation zone dimensions (Karami Moghaddam & Keshavarzi 2007; Ramamurthy et al. 2007). However, they employed other methods to enhance the discharge ratio. Employing both techniques simultaneously can decrease the separation zone dimensions up to 63%. A comparison between the new methods introduced in this paper and traditional methods such as installation of submerged vanes, and changing the inlet geometry (angle, radius) was performed. The comparison shows that the new techniques can be highly influential and still practical. The numerical and laboratory models are in good agreement and show that the method used in this study has been effective in reducing the separation area. This method is simple, economical and can prevent sediment deposition in the intake canal. Results show that CFD prediction of the fluid through the separation zone at the canal intake can be predicted reasonably well and the RNG model offers the best results in terms of predictability.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Listen

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

REFERENCES

Abbasi A., Ghodsian M., Habibi M. & Salehi Neishabouri S. A. 2004 Experimental investigation on dimensions of flow separation zone at lateral intakeentrance. Research & Construction; Pajouhesh va Sazandegi 62, 38–44. (In Persian).Google Scholar Al-Zubaidy R. & Hilo A. 2021 Numerical investigation of flow behavior at the lateral intake using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.172.Google Scholar Chow V. T. 1959 Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York.Jalili H., Hosseinzadeh Dalir A. & Farsadizadeh D. 2011 Effect of intake geometry on the sediment transport and lateral flow pattern. Iranian Water Research Journal 5 (9), 1–10. (In Persian).Google Scholar Jamshidi A., Farsadizadeh D. & Hosseinzadeh Dalir A. 2016 Variations of flow separation zone at lateral intake entrance using submerged vanes. Journal of Civil Engineering Urban 6 (3), 54–63. Journal homepage. Available from: www.ojceu.ir/main.Google Scholar Karami Moghaddam K. & Keshavarzi A. 2007 Investigation of flow structure in lateral intakes of 55° and 90° with rounded entrance edge. In: 03 National Congress on Civil Engineering University of Tabriz. Available from: https://civilica.com/doc/16317. (In Persian).Google Scholar Karami H., Farzin S., Sadrabadi M. T. & Moazeni H. 2017 Simulation of flow pattern at rectangular lateral intake with different dike and submerged vane scenarios. Journal of Water Science and Engineering 10 (3), 246–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2017.10.001.Google Scholar Crossref Kasthuri B. & Pundarikanthan N. V. 1987 Discussion on separation zone at open- channel junction. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 113 (4), 543–548.Google Scholar Crossref Keshavarzi A. & Habibi L. 2005 Optimizing water intake angle by flow separation analysis. Journal of Irrigation and Drain 54, 543–552. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.207.Google Scholar Crossref Kirkgöz M. S. & Ardiçlioğlu M. 1997 Velocity profiles of developing and developed open channel flow. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 1099–1105. 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1997)123:12(1099).Google Scholar Nakato T., Kennedy J. F. & Bauerly D. 1990 Pumpstation intake-shoaling control with submerge vanes. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1990)116:1(119).Google Scholar Neary V. S. & Odgaard J. A. 1993 Three-dimensional flow structure at open channel diversions. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. ASCE 119 (11), 1224–1230. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1993)119:11(1223).Google Scholar Crossref Nikbin S. & Borghei S. M. 2011 Experimental investigation of submerged vanes effect on dimensions of flow separation zone at a 90° openchannel junction. In: 06rd National Congress on Civil Engineering University of Semnan. (In Persian). Available from: https://civilica.com/doc/120494.Google Scholar Odgaard J. A. & Wang Y. 1991 Sediment management with submerged vanes, I: theory. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 117 (3), 267–283.Google Scholar Crossref Ramamurthy A. S., Junying Q. & Diep V. 2007 Numerical and experimental study of dividing open-channel flows. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. See: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2007)133:10(1135).Google Scholar Seyedian S., Karami Moghaddam K. & Shafai Begestan M. 2008 Determining the optimal radius in lateral intakes of 55° and 90° using variation of flow velocity. In: 07th Iranian Hydraulic Conference. Power & Water University of Technology (PWUT). (In Persian). Available from: https://civilica.com/doc/56251.Google Scholar Zolghadr M. & Shafai Bejestan M. 2020 Six legged concrete (SLC) elements as scour countermeasures at wing wall bridge abutments. International Journal of River Basin Management. doi: 10.1080/15715124.2020.1726357.Google Scholar Zolghadr M., Zomorodian S. M. A., Shabani R. & Azamatulla H.Md. 2021 Migration of sand mining pit in rivers: an experimental, numerical and case study. Measurement. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108944.Google Scholar © 2022 The AuthorsThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercial purposes with no derivatives, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

PDF View

Fluid Thermodynamic Simulation of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy in Laser Wire Deposition

Xiang Wang, Lin-Jie Zhang, Jie Ning, and Suck-Joo Na
Published Online:8 Apr 2022https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2021.0159

Abstract

A 3D numerical model of heat transfer and fluid flow of molten pool in the process of laser wire deposition was presented by computational fluid dynamics technique. The simulation results of the deposition morphology were also compared with the experimental results under the condition of liquid bridge transfer mode. Moreover, they showed a good agreement. Considering the effect of recoil pressure, the morphology of the deposit metal obtained by the simulation was similar to the experiment result. Molten metal at the wire tip was peeled off and flowed into the molten pool, and then spread to both sides of the deposition layer under the recoil pressure. In addition, the results of simulation and high-speed charge-coupled device presented that a wedge transition zone, with a length of ∼6 mm, was formed behind the keyhole in the liquid bridge transfer process, where the height of deposited metal decreased gradually. After solidification, metal in the transition zone retained the original melt morphology, resulting in a decrease in the height of the tail of the deposition layer.

Keywords

LWD, CFD, liquid bridge transfer, fluid dynamics, wedge transition zone

References

1. Matthews MJ, Guss G, Khairallah SA, et al. Denudation of metal powder layers in laser powder bed fusion processes. Acta Mater 2016;114:33–42. Crossref, Google Scholar

2. Ge WJ, Han SW, Fang YC, et al. Mechanism of surface morphology in electron beam melting of Ti6Al4V based on computational flow patterns. Appl Surf Sci 2017;419:150–158. Crossref, Google Scholar

3. Bai XW, Colegrove P, Ding JL, et al. Numerical analyswas of heat transfer and fluid flow in multilayer deposition of PAW-based wire and arc additive manufacturing. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2018;124:504–516. Crossref, Google Scholar

4. Torkamany MJ, Kaplan AFH, Ghaini FM. Wire deposition by a laser-induced boiling front. Opt Laser Technol 2015;69:104–112. Crossref, Google Scholar

5. Yu Y, Huang W, Wang G. Investigation of melting dynamics of filler wire during wire feed laser welding. J Mec Sci Technol 2013;27:1097–1108. Crossref, Google Scholar

6. Ma G, Li L, Chen Y. Effects of beam confgurations on wire melting and transfer behaviors in dual beam laser welding with fller wire. Opt Laser Technol 2017;91:138–148. Crossref, Google Scholar

7. Abioye TE, Folkes J, Clare AT. A parametric study of Inconel 625 wire laser deposition. J Mater Process Tech 2013;213:2145–2151. Crossref, Google Scholar

8. Wei S, Wang G, Shin YC, et al. Comprehensive modeling of transport phenomena in laser hot-wire deposition process. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2018;125:1356–1368. Crossref, Google Scholar

9. Gu H, Li L. Computational fluid dynamic simulation of gravity and pressure effects in laser metal deposition for potential additive manufacturing in space. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2019;140:51–65. Crossref, Google Scholar

10. Hu R, Luo M, Liu T, et al. Thermal fluid dynamics of liquid bridge transfer in laser wire deposition 3D printing. Sci Technolf Weld Join 2019;24:1–11. Google Scholar

11. Chatterjee D, Chakraborty S. A hybrid lattice Boltzmann model for solid–liquid phase transition in presence of fluid flow. Phys Lett A 2006;351:359–367. Crossref, Google Scholar

12. Wu L, Cheon J, Kiran DV, et al. CFD simulations of GMA welding of horizontal fillet joints based on coordinate rotation of arc models. J Mater Process Tech 2016;231:221–238. Crossref, Google Scholar

13. Gerhard W, Boyer RR, Collings EW. Materials Properties Handbook: Titanium Alloys. ASM International: Almere, The Netherlands, 1994. Google Scholar

14. Colegrove P, Simiand PE, Varughese A, et al. Evaluation of a drilling model approach to represent laser spot microwelding. In: ASM Proceedings of the international conference: trends in welding research; 2009. Google Scholar

15. Boivineau M, Cagran C, Doytier D, et al. Thermophysical properties of solid and liquid Ti-6Al-4V (TA6V) alloy. Int J Thermophys 2006;27:507–529. Crossref, Google Scholar

16. Shejndlin AE, Kenisarin MM, Chekhovskoj VY. Melting point of yttrium oxide. AN SSSR 1974;216:582–584. Google Scholar

17. Cho JH, Na SJ. Teflection and Fresnel absorption of laser beam in keyhole. J Phys D Appl Phys 2006;39:5372–5378. Crossref, Google Scholar

18. Han SW, Ahn J, Na SJ. A study on ray tracing method for CFD simulations of laser keyhole welding: Progressive search method. Weld World 2016;60:247–258. Crossref, Google Scholar

19. Allmen MV. Laser-Beam Interactions with Materials. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg, 1995. Google Scholar

20. Dobson PJ. Absorption and scattering of light by small particles. Phys Bull 1984;35:104. Crossref, Google Scholar

21. Greses J, Hilton PA, Barlow CY. Plume attenuation under high power Nd:yttritium aluminum garnet laser welding. J Laser Appl 2004;16:9–15. Crossref, Google Scholar

22. Shcheglov PY, Uspenskiy SA, Gumenyuk AV, et al. Plume attenuation of laser radiation during high power fiber laser welding. Laser Phys Lett 2011;8:475–480. Crossref, Google Scholar

23. Yang P, Liou KN. Effective refractive index for determining ray propagation in an absorbing dielectric particle. J Quant Spectrosc Radiat Transf 2009;110:300–306. Crossref, Google Scholar

24. Barber PW. Absorption and scattering of light by small particles. J Colloid Interface Sci 1984;98:290–291. Google Scholar

25. Hu ZR, Chen X, Yang G, et al. Metal transfer in wire feeding-based electron beam 3D printing: Modes, dynamics, and transition criterion. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2018;126:877–887. Crossref, Google Scholar

26. David SA, Babu SS, Vitek JM. Welding: Solidification and microstructure. JOM 2013;55:14–20. Crossref, Google Scholar

27. Zhong ML, Liu W. Laser surface cladding: The state of the art and challenges. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C J Mech Eng Sci 2010;224:1041–1060. Crossref, Google Scholar

28. Kobryn PA, Semiatin S. Microstructure and texture evolution during solidification processing of Ti-6Al-4V. J Mater Process Technol 2003;135:330–339. Crossref, Google Scholar

29. Debroy T, David S. Physical processes in fusion welding. Rev Mod Phys 1995;67:85–112. Crossref, Google Scholar

30. Lee YS, Nordin M, Babu SS, et al. Effect of fluid convection on dendrite arm spacing in laser deposition. Metall Trans B 2014;45:1520–1528. Crossref, Google Scholar

31. Rappaz M, David SA, Vitek JM, et al. Development of microstructures in Fe15Ni15Cr single crystal electron beam welds. Metall Trans A 1989;20:1125–1138. Crossref, Google Scholar

PDF Download

곡면에 GMAW용 용접 비드의 형성 특성 및 제어 방법

Forming characteristics and control method of weld bead for GMAW on curved surface

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2021)Cite this article

56 Accesses
Metrics

Abstract

곡면에서 GMAW 기반 적층 가공의 용접 성형 특성은 중력의 영향을 크게 받습니다. 성형면의 경사각이 크면 혹 비드(hump bead)와 같은 심각한 결함이 발생합니다.

본 논문에서는 양생면에서 용접 비드 형성의 형성 특성과 제어 방법을 연구하기 위해 용접 용융 풀 유동 역학의 전산 모델을 수립하고 제안된 모델을 검증하기 위해 증착 실험을 수행하였습니다.

결과는 용접 비드 경사각(α)이 증가함에 따라 역류의 속도가 증가하고 상향 용접의 경우 α > 60°일 때 불규칙한 험프 결함이 나타나는 것으로 나타났습니다.

상부 과잉 액체의 하향 압착력과 하부 상향 유동의 반동력과 표면장력 사이의 상호작용은 용접 혹 형성의 주요 요인이었다. 하향 용접의 경우 양호한 형태를 얻을 수 있었으며, 용접 비드 경사각이 증가함에 따라 용접 높이는 감소하고 용접 폭은 증가하였습니다.

하향 및 상향 용접을 위한 곡면의 용융 거동 및 성형 특성을 기반으로 험프 결함을 제어하기 위해 위브 용접을 통한 증착 방법을 제안하였습니다.

성형 궤적의 변화로 인해 용접 방향의 중력 성분이 크게 감소하여 용융 풀 흐름의 안정성이 향상되었으며 복잡한 표면에서 안정적이고 일관된 용접 비드를 얻는 데 유리했습니다.

하향 용접과 상향 용접 사이의 단일 비드의 치수 편차는 7% 이내였으며 하향 및 상향 혼합 혼합 비드 중첩 증착에서 비드의 변동 편차는 0.45로 GMAW 기반 적층 제조 공정에서 허용될 수 있었습니다.

이러한 발견은 GMAW를 기반으로 하는 곡선 적층 적층 제조의 용접 비드 형성 제어에 기여했습니다.

The weld forming characteristics of GMAW-based additive manufacturing on curved surface are dramatically influenced by gravity. Large inclined angle of the forming surface would lead to severe defects such as hump bead. In this paper, a computational model of welding molten pool flow dynamics was established to research the forming characteristic and control method of weld bead forming on cured surface, and deposition experiments were conducted to verify the proposed model. Results indicated that the velocity of backward flows increased with the increase of weld bead tilt angle (α) and irregular hump defects appeared when α > 60° for upward welding. The interaction between the downward squeezing force of the excess liquid at the top and the recoil force of the upward flow at the bottom and the surface tension were primary factors for welding hump formation. For downward welding, a good morphology shape could be obtained, and the weld height decreased and the weld width increased with the increase of weld bead tilt angle. Based on the molten behaviors and forming characteristics on curved surface for downward and upward welding, the method of deposition with weave welding was proposed to control hump defects. Gravity component in the welding direction was significantly reduced due to the change of forming trajectory, which improved the stability of the molten pool flow and was beneficial to obtain stable and consistent weld bead on complex surface. The dimensional deviations of the single bead between downward and upward welding were within 7% and the fluctuation deviation of the bead in multi-bead overlapping deposition with mixing downward and upward welding was 0.45, which could be acceptable in GMAW-based additive manufacturing process. These findings contributed to the weld bead forming control of curve layered additive manufacturing based on GMAW.

Keywords

Molten pool behaviors
GMAW-based WAAM
Deposition with weave welding
Welding on curved surface

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17
Fig. 18
Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Fig. 22
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
Fig. 25
Fig. 26
Fig. 27
Fig. 28
Fig. 29
Fig. 30
Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Fig. 33
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
Fig. 36
Fig. 37
Fig. 38

References

1.Williams SW, Martina F, Addison AC, Ding J, Pardal G, Colegrove P (2016) Wire + arc additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Technol (United Kingdom) 32:641–647. https://doi.org/10.1179/1743284715Y.0000000073 Article Google Scholar
2.Pan ZX, Ding DH, Wu BT, Cuiuri D, Li HJ, Norrish J (2018) Arc welding processes for additive manufacturing: a review. In: Transactions on intelligent welding manufacturing. Springer Singapore, pp 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5355-9_1
3.Panchagnula JS, Simhambhatla S (2018) Manufacture of complex thin-walled metallic objects using weld-deposition based additive manufacturing. Robot Comput Integr Manuf 49:194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2017.06.003 Article Google Scholar
4.Lu S, Zhou J, Zhang JS (2015) Optimization of welding thickness on casting-steel surface for production of forging die. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 76:1411–1419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-014-6371-9 Article Google Scholar
5.Huang B, Singamneni SB (2015) Curved layer adaptive slicing (CLAS) for fused deposition modelling. Rapid Prototyp J 21:354–367. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-06-2013-0059 Article Google Scholar
6.Jin Y, Du J, He Y, Fu GQ (2017) Modeling and process planning for curved layer fused deposition. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 91:273–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9743-5 Article Google Scholar
7.Xie FB, Chen LF, Li ZY, Tang K (2020) Path smoothing and feed rate planning for robotic curved layer additive manufacturing. Robot Comput Integr Manuf 65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2020.101967
8.Ding YY, Dwivedi R, Kovacevic R (2017) Process planning for 8-axis robotized laser-based direct metal deposition system: a case on building revolved part. Robot Comput Integr Manuf 44:67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2016.08.008 Article Google Scholar
9.Cho DW, Na SJ (2015) Molten pool behaviors for second pass V-groove GMAW. Int J Heat Mass Transf 88:945–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.05.021 Article Google Scholar
10.Cho DW, Na SJ, Cho MH, Lee JS (2013) A study on V-groove GMAW for various welding positions. J Mater Process Technol 213:1640–1652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2013.02.015 Article Google Scholar
11.Hejripour F, Valentine DT, Aidun DK (2018) Study of mass transport in cold wire deposition for wire arc additive manufacturing. Int J Heat Mass Transf 125:471–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.04.092 Article Google Scholar
12.Yuan L, Pan ZX, Ding DH, He FY, Duin SV, Li HJ, Li WH (2020) Investigation of humping phenomenon for the multi-directional robotic wire and arc additive manufacturing. Robot Comput Integr Manuf 63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2019.101916
13.Nguyen MC, Medale M, Asserin O, Gounand S, Gilles P (2017) Sensitivity to welding positions and parameters in GTA welding with a 3D multiphysics numerical model. Numer Heat Transf Part A Appl 71:233–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407782.2016.1264747 Article Google Scholar
14.Gu H, Li L (2019) Computational fluid dynamic simulation of gravity and pressure effects in laser metal deposition for potential additive manufacturing in space. Int J Heat Mass Transf 140:51–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.05.081 Article Google Scholar
15.Cho MH, Farson DF (2007) Understanding bead hump formation in gas metal arc welding using a numerical simulation. Metall Mater Trans B Process Metall Mater Process Sci 38:305–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-007-9034-5 Article Google Scholar
16.Nguyen TC, Weckman DC, Johnson DA, Kerr HW (2005) The humping phenomenon during high speed gas metal arc welding. Sci Technol Weld Join 10:447–459. https://doi.org/10.1179/174329305X44134 Article Google Scholar
17.Philip Y, Xu ZY, Wang Y, Wang R, Ye X (2019) Investigation of humping defect formation in a lap joint at a high-speed hybrid laser-GMA welding. Results Phys 13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2019.102341
18.Hu ZQ, Qin XP, Shao T, Liu HM (2018) Understanding and overcoming of abnormity at start and end of the weld bead in additive manufacturing with GMAW. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 95:2357–2368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-1392-9 Article Google Scholar
19.Tang SY, Wang GL, Huang C, Li RS, Zhou SY, Zhang HO (2020) Investigation, modeling and optimization of abnormal areas of weld beads in wire and arc additive manufacturing. Rapid Prototyp J 26:1183–1195. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-08-2019-0229 Article Google Scholar
20.Bai X, Colegrove P, Ding J, Zhou XM, Diao CL, Bridgeman P, Honnige JR, Zhang HO, Williams S (2018) Numerical analysis of heat transfer and fluid flow in multilayer deposition of PAW-based wire and arc additive manufacturing. Int J Heat Mass Transf 124:504–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.03.085 Article Google Scholar
21.Siewert E, Schein J, Forster G (2013) Determination of enthalpy, temperature, surface tension and geometry of the material transfer in PGMAW for the system argon-iron. J Phys D Appl Phys 46. https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/46/22/224008
22.Goldak J, Chakravarti A, Bibby M (1984) A new finite element model for welding heat sources. Metall Trans B 15:299–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02667333 Article Google Scholar
23.Fachinotti VD, Cardona A (2008) Semi-analytical solution of the thermal field induced by a moving double-ellipsoidal welding heat source in a semi-infinite body. Mec Comput XXVII:1519–1530
24.Nguyen NT, Mai YW, Simpson S, Ohta A (2004) Analytical approximate solution for double ellipsoidal heat source in finite thick plate. Weld J 83:82–93Google Scholar
25.Goldak J, Chakravarti A, Bibby M (1985) A double ellipsoid finite element model for welding heat sources. IIW Doc. No. 212-603-85
26.Gu Y, Li YD, Yong Y, Xu FL, Su LF (2019) Determination of parameters of double-ellipsoidal heat source model based on optimization method. Weld World 63:365–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-018-00678-w Article Google Scholar
27.Wu CS, Tsao KC (1990) Modelling the three-dimensional fluid flow and heat transfer in a moving weld pool. Eng Comput 7:241–248. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb023811 Article Google Scholar
28.Zhan XH, Liu XB, Wei YH, Chen JC, Chen J, Liu HB (2017) Microstructure and property characteristics of thick Invar alloy plate joints using weave bead welding. J Mater Process Technol 244:97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.01.014 Article Google Scholar
29.Zhan XH, Zhang D, Liu XB, Chen J, Wei YH, Liu RP (2017) Comparison between weave bead welding and multi-layer multi-pass welding for thick plate Invar steel. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 88:2211–2225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-8926-4 Article Google Scholar
30.Xu GX, Li L, Wang JY, Zhu J, Li PF (2018) Study of weld formation in swing arc narrow gap vertical GMA welding by numerical modeling and experiment. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 96:1905–1917. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-1729-z Article Google Scholar
31.Li YZ, Sun YF, Han QL, Zhang GJ, Horvath I (2018) Enhanced beads overlapping model for wire and arc additive manufacturing of multi-layer multi-bead metallic parts. J Mater Process Technol 252:838–848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.10.017 Article Google Scholar

PDF 원문보기

능동 가압의 경우 극저온 탱크의 열 및 물질 전달

Heat and Mass Transfer in a Cryogenic Tank in Case of Active-Pressurization

하이라이트

헤닝 슈플러 옌스 게르스트만DLR 독일 항공 우주 센터, 우주 시스템 연구소, 28359 Bremen, Germany

상변화 및 공액 열전달을 포함하는 압축성 2상 솔버 개발.

분석 솔루션으로 솔버를 성공적으로 검증.

극저온 탱크의 압력 및 온도 변화에 대한 정확한 시뮬레이션.

자유 표면에서의 물질 전달 분석.

Abstract

압력 요구 사항을 예측하는 것은 극저온 추진 시스템의 주요 과제 중 하나입니다. 이러한 맥락에서 증발 및 응축 현상을 고려한 탱크 여압을 시뮬레이션하기 위한 수치 모델을 개발하여 적용하였습니다.

새로운 솔버는 PISO(splitting of operator) 알고리즘이 있는 압력 암시적 방법을 기반으로 하는 OpenFOAM의 약한 압축성 다상 솔버와 기울기 기반 위상 변화 모델을 결합합니다. 날카로운 인터페이스를 유지하기 위해 인터페이스에 인접한 셀에 질량 소스 용어가 적용됩니다.

첫째, 모델은 1차원 상 변화 문제와 중력이 없는 상태에서 과열된 액체에서 증기 기포의 성장이라는 두 가지 분석 솔루션에 대해 검증되었습니다.

두 번째 단계에서는 검증된 모델을 극저온 가압 실험에 적용했습니다. 측정된 압력 거동은 수치 모델이 양호한 근사값으로 확인될 수 있습니다.

수치 모델을 사용하면 물리적 거동에 대한 추가 통찰력을 얻을 수 있습니다. 응축 및 증발 효과는 가압 중 및 가압 후의 압력 발생에 상당한 영향을 미칩니다. 기액 계면에서 일어나는 상변화로 인한 질량유동은 계면의 위치와 시간에 따라 달라진다. 벽에서 직접적으로 증발이 지배적이며 액체 표면의 중앙 영역에서 응결이 발생합니다.

응축 및 증발 효과는 가압 중 및 가압 후의 압력 발생에 상당한 영향을 미칩니다. 기액 계면에서 일어나는 상변화로 인한 질량유동은 계면의 위치와 시간에 따라 달라진다. 벽에서 직접적으로 증발이 지배적이며 액체 표면의 중앙 영역에서 응결이 발생합니다.

Predicting the pressurant requirements is one of the key challenges for cryogenic propulsion systems. In this context, a numerical model to simulate the tank pressurization that considers evaporation and condensation phenomena was developed and applied. The novel solver combines the a gradient-based phase change model with a weakly compressible multiphase solver of OpenFOAM based on the pressure implicit method with splitting of operator (PISO) algorithm. To maintain a sharp interface the mass source terms are applied to the cells adjacent to the interface. First, the model is validated against two analytical solutions: the one-dimensional phase change problem and secondly, the growth of a vapor bubble in a superheated liquid in the absence of gravity. In a second step, the validated model was applied to a cryogenic pressurization experiment. The measured pressure behavior could be confirmed with the numerical model being in a good approximation. With the numerical model further insights into the physical behavior could be achieved. The condensation and evaporation effects have a significant impact on the pressure development during and after the pressurization. The mass flows due to phase change occurring at the vapor-liquid interface depend on interface location and time. Directly at the wall, evaporation becomes dominant while condensation occurs at the center area of the liquid surface.

Hide figures

키워드

Pressurization, Phase Change, CFD, Propellant Management, 가압, 상 변화, 추진제 관리

View PDF

Validation of Sloshing Simulations in Narrow Tanks

This case study was contributed by Peter Arnold, Minerva Dynamics.

이 작업의 목적은 FLOW-3D 를 검증하는 것입니다. 밀폐된 좁은 스팬 직사각형 탱크의 출렁거림 문제에 대비하여 탱크의 내부 파동 공명 주기에 가깝거나 같은 주기로 롤 운동을 하여 측면 및 지붕 파동 충격 이벤트가 발생합니다.

탱크는 물이나 해바라기 기름으로 두 가지 다른 수준으로 채워졌고 위의 공간은 공기로 채워졌습니다. 압력 센서는 여러 장소의 벽에 설치되었으며 처음 4개의 출렁이는 기간 동안 기록된 롤 각도와 시간 이력이 있습니다. 오일을 사용하는 경우의 흐름은 레이놀즈 수가 1748인 층류인 반면, 물로 채워진 경우의 흐름은 레이놀즈 수가 97546인 난류입니다.

CFD 시뮬레이션은 탱크의 고조파 롤 운동을 복제하기 위해 본체력 방법을 사용했으며, 난류 및 공기 압축성을 설명하기 위해 다른 모델링 가정과 함께 그리드 의존성 테스트를 수행했습니다.

The objective of this work is to validate FLOW-3D against a sloshing problem in a sealed narrow span rectangular tank, subjected to roll motion at periods close to or equal to the tank’s internal wave resonance period, such that side and roof wave impact events occur. The tank was filled to two different levels with water or sunflower oil, with the space above filled by air. Pressure sensors were installed in the walls at several places and their time histories, along with the roll angle, recorded for the first four sloshing periods. For the cases using oil, the flow is laminar with a Reynolds number of 1748, while for the cases filled with water the flow is turbulent with a Reynolds number of 97546. The CFD simulations used the body force method to replicate the harmonic roll motion of the tank, while grid dependence tests were performed along with different modelling assumptions to account for turbulence and air compressibility.

Experimental Problem Setup

원래 실험은 Souto-Iglesias 및 Botia-Vera[1]에 의해 수행되었으며 모든 실험 데이터 파일은 문제 설명, 비디오 및 불확실성 분석과 함께 사용할 수 있습니다. 그림 1에 표시된 형상은 길이 900mm, 높이 508mm, 스팬 62mm의 직사각형 탱크로 구성되어 있으며 물이나 해바라기 기름으로 93mm 또는 355.3mm로 채워져 있으므로 4가지 경우가 고려됩니다. 탱크 벽과 같은 높이로 설치된 압력 센서의 위치도 표시됩니다. 탱크 회전 중심은 수평에 대한 회전 각도와 함께 그림 1에 나와 있습니다. 각 실험 실행은 반복성을 평가할 수 있도록 100번 수행되었습니다.

The original experiment was performed by Souto-Iglesias and Botia-Vera [1] and all experimental data files are available along with problem description, videos and an uncertainty analysis. The geometry shown in Fig. 1 consists of a rectangular tank of 900mm length, 508mm height and 62mm span, filled to either 93mm or 355.3 mm with either water or sunflower oil, hence four cases are considered. The locations of the pressure sensors that were installed flush with the tank walls are also shown. The tank rotation center is shown in Fig. 1, along with the rotation angle relative to the horizontal. Each of the experimental runs was performed 100 times to enable their repeatability to be assessed.

Numerical Simulation

문제는 FLOW-3D 내에서 비관성 기준 좌표계 모델을 사용하여 비교적 간단하게 설정할 수 있으며 , 이는 로컬 기준 좌표계의 가속도에 따라 유체에 체력 을 적용합니다. Z축 회전 속도는 탱크의 롤 운동을 시뮬레이션하기 위한 주기 함수로 정의되었으며 음의 수직 방향으로 작용하는 일정한 중력이 가해졌습니다.

메쉬 미세화, 운동량 이류에 대한 수치 근사 순서, 층류 대 난류 모델 및 탱크 내 공기에 대한 세 가지 다른 처리(즉, 일정 압력, 압축성 기체 및 비압축성 기체)와 같은 것을 조사하기 위해 여러 시뮬레이션을 수행했습니다.

93mm 깊이로 채워진 모든 케이스에 대해 압력은 압력 센서 P1에서만 실험 값과 비교되었으며, 355.3mm 깊이로 채워진 모든 케이스에서는 P3 센서의 데이터만 비교되었습니다.

The problem was relatively simple to set up using the non-inertial reference frame model within FLOW-3D, which applies a body force to the fluid depending on the acceleration of the local reference frame. The Z axis rotational velocity was defined as a periodic function to simulate a roll motion of the tank, and a constant gravity force acting in the negative vertical direction was applied.

Multiple simulations were performed to investigate such things as mesh refinement, the numerical approximation order for momentum advection, laminar versus turbulent models and three different treatments for the air in the tank (i.e., constant pressure, compressible gas and incompressible gas).

For all 93mm depth-filled cases, the pressure was compared to the experimental values at pressure sensor P1 only, while for all 355.3mm depth-filled cases, only data at the P3 sensor was compared.

Results

P1에서 측정된 측면 워터 슬로싱에 대한 메쉬 해상도의 영향은 그림 2에서 볼 수 있습니다. 피크 값 예측 측면에서 특별한 편향을 보이지 않습니다. 모든 측면 사례에서 초기 피크 직후의 압력은 시뮬레이션에서 일관되게 과대 평가되었습니다. 모든 메쉬는 피크의 타이밍 측면에서 우수한 일치를 보입니다. 100회 실행에서 보고된 실험 시간 기록은 평균 값에 가장 가까운 최고 압력을 가진 기록입니다.

The effect of mesh resolution on lateral water sloshing measured at P1 is seen in Fig. 2. It shows no particular bias in terms of the prediction of peak values. In all the Lateral cases, the pressures immediately after the initial peaks are consistently over estimated in the simulations. All meshes have excellent agreement in terms of the timing of the peaks. The experimental time histories reported from the 100 runs made are those with peak pressures closest to the average values.

실험 결과의 반복성은 Souto-Iglesias & Elkin Botia-Vera[1]에 의해 각 테스트를 100번 실행하고 처음 4개의 피크 압력의 평균 및 표준 편차를 측정하여 평가했습니다. CFD 실행이 다른 실험 실행으로 간주되는 경우 오류 막대 내에 있을 확률이 95%입니다. 그러나 CFD 결과의 16개 피크 압력 중 9개만 실험 결과의 2 표준 편차 내에 있으므로 CFD 모델이 실험을 대표하지 않거나 피크 압력이 정규 분포를 따르지 않는다는 결론을 내려야 합니다.

어쨌든 표준 편차는 피크 자체에 비해 상당히 크며, 수성 케이스와 측면 오일의 비율이 가장 작은 피크 값에 대한 표준 편차의 비율이 가장 큰 것으로 나타났습니다. 이러한 결과는 그림 1과 2에서 볼 수 있는 벽 충격 역학의 복잡성을 고려할 때 그리 놀라운 일이 아닙니다. 3,4.

The repeatability of the experimental results was assessed by Souto-Iglesias & Elkin Botia-Vera [1] running each test 100 times and measuring the average and standard deviation of the first four peak pressures. If a CFD run is considered to be another experimental run there is a 95% chance it will lie within the error bars. However, only nine of the 16 peak pressures from the CFD results fall within two standard deviations of the experimental results, so we must conclude that either the CFD model is not representative of the experiment or that the peak pressures are not normally distributed.

In any event, the standard deviations are quite large compared to the peaks themselves, with the largest ratio of standard deviation to peak values occurring for the water-based cases and the lateral oil having the smallest ratio. These results are perhaps not too surprising when one considers the complexity of the wall impact dynamics as seen in Figs. 3,4.

Conclusions

좁은 탱크 슬로싱 문제의 네 가지 구성은 자유 표면 흐름을 위해 설계된 상용 CFD 코드를 사용하여 수치적으로 시뮬레이션되었습니다. 대략 2 X 10 ³ 및 1 X 10 ⁵ 의 Reynolds 수에 해당하는 두 가지 다른 유체 와 두 가지 유체 깊이가 네 가지 경우를 정의하는 데 사용되었습니다. 4가지 경우 모두에 대해 메쉬 셀 크기 독립성 테스트를 수행했지만 메쉬 해상도가 증가함에 따라 실험 결과에 대해 약한 수렴만 발견되었습니다. 조사는 또한 두 가지 다른 운동량 이류 수치 차분 계획을 테스트했으며 두 ^{번째 방법을} 사용하여 더 가까운 일치를 발견했습니다 1차 체계를 사용하는 것보다 차수 단조성 보존 체계. 기본 층류 흐름을 포함한 세 가지 난류 모델이 테스트되었지만 더 낮은 계산 비용으로 인해 층류 이외의 모델에 대한 선호도가 발견되지 않았습니다. 실험 데이터와 공기 감소 일치의 압축성을 포함하여 그 이유는 불분명합니다.

실험 압력 프로브 시간 이력 데이터 세트에는 100회 반복 테스트에서 파생된 각 압력 피크에 대해 100개의 값이 포함되어 있으므로 CFD 시뮬레이션과의 일치의 통계적 유의성을 조사할 수 있었습니다. 수치 시뮬레이션과 실험 모두 출렁이는 파동 충격에 해당하는 매우 가파른 압력 펄스를 발생시켰고 실험 결과는 피크 값에서 높은 정도의 자연적 변동성을 갖는 것으로 나타났습니다. CFD 시뮬레이션의 감도 테스트(예: 약간 다른 초기 시작 조건 사용)는 공식적으로 수행되지 않았지만 수치 솔루션은 또한 다른 메쉬, 차분 체계 및 난류 모델,

모든 경우에 압력 피크가 발생하는 수치해의 타이밍은 매우 정확함을 알 수 있었다. 그러나 가장 난이도가 낮은 Lateral Oil의 경우에도 압력 피크와 바로 뒤따르는 압력 값이 과대 평가되어 수치 모델링의 단점이 나타났습니다. 실험적 피크 압력 변동성을 고려할 때 CFD 생성 값은 CFD 솔루션이 통계적 유의성을 나타내기 위해 필요한 15개 이상이 아니라 16개 피크 중 9개에서 2개의 표준편차 한계 내에 떨어졌습니다. 실험을 대표했다. 이것은 피크가 정규 분포를 따르지 않거나 CFD 모델이 피크를 예측하는 데 어떤 식으로든 결함이 있음을 나타냅니다.

Four configurations of a narrow tank sloshing problem were numerically simulated using a commercial CFD code designed for free surface flow. Two different fluids corresponding to Reynolds numbers of approximately 2 X 10³ and 1 X 10⁵ and two fluid depths were used to define the four cases. Mesh cell size independence tests were conducted for all four cases, but only a weak convergence towards the experimental results with increasing mesh resolution was found. The investigation also tested two different momentum advection numerical differencing schemes and found closer agreement using the 2^nd order monotonicity preserving scheme than by using a first order scheme. Three turbulence models, including the default laminar flow, were tested but no preference was found for any model other than the laminar by virtue of its lower computational cost. Including the compressibility of the air-reduced agreement with the experimental data, the reasons for this are unclear.

The experimental pressure probe time history data sets included 100 values for each of the pressure peaks derived from 100 repeat tests, and thus we were able to examine the statistical significance of the agreement with the CFD simulations. Both the numerical simulations and the experiments gave rise to very steep pressure pulses corresponding to the sloshing wave impacts, and the experimental results were found to have a high degree of natural variability in the peak values. Although sensitivity tests of the CFD simulations (using, for example, slightly different initial starting conditions) were not formally conducted, the numerical solutions also showed a high degree of variability in the pressure peak magnitudes resulting from the use of different meshes, differencing schemes and turbulence models, which could be considered to show that the numerical solution also had a high degree of natural variability.

In all cases, the numerical solutions’ timing of the occurrence of the pressure peaks were found to be very accurate. However, even for the least challenging Lateral Oil case, the pressure peaks and the immediately following pressure values were overestimated, which indicated a shortcoming in the numerical modelling. When the experimental peak pressure variability was taken into account, the CFD-generated values fell inside the two Standard Deviation margin in nine of the 16 peaks rather than the 15 or more that would be required to show statistical significance in the sense that the CFD solution was representative of the experiment. This indicates that either the peaks are not normally distributed and/or the CFD model is in some way deficient at predicting them. Further work is required to establish how the peak pressures are distributed and/or to establish the physical reasons why the CFD model is overestimating the pressure peaks for even the least challenging Lateral Oil configuration.

References

Spheric Benchmark Test Case, Sloshing Wave Impact Problem, Antonio Souto-Iglesias & Elkin Botia-Vera, https://wiki.manchester.ac.uk/spheric/index.php/Test10
Peregrine DH (1993). Water-wave impact on walls. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. Vol 35, pp 23-43.

Editor’s Note

The complete document from which this note was extracted and the related data and input files are available on our Users Site. Readers are encouraged to read the original validation to get a full appreciation of the detail in this work investigating comparisons between simulation and experimental data. This study is especially noteworthy since it deals with highly non-linear sloshing of fluids interacting with the boundaries of a confining tank.

With regard to the author’s conclusions, it should be mentioned that the over prediction of fluid impact pressures in simulations could be the result of not allowing for sufficient compressibility effects in the liquids. For instance, in Fig. 3, it appears that there has been some air entrained in the liquid near the side wall. Also, negative pressures (i.e., below atmospheric) recorded experimentally might result from liquid drops remaining on the pressure sensors after the main body of liquid has drained away. Such details, which may be hard to quantify, only emphasize the difficulties involved in undertaking detailed validation studies. The author is commended for his excellent work.

Flow-3D 수치 모델링 결과를 기반으로 하는 슈트 여수로의 캐비테이션 발생 확률적 조사

Probabilistic investigation of cavitation occurrence in chute spillway based on the results of Flow-3D numerical modeling

Amin Hasanalipour Shahrabadi¹*, Mehdi Azhdary Moghaddam²

1-University of Sistan and Baluchestan،amin.h.shahrabadi@gmail.com

2-University of Sistan and Baluchestan،Mazhdary@eng.usb.ac.ir

Abstract

Probabilistic designation is a powerful tool in hydraulic engineering. The uncertainty caused by random phenomenon in hydraulic design may be important. Uncertainty can be expressed in terms of probability density function, confidence interval, or statistical torques such as standard deviation or coefficient of variation of random parameters. Controlling cavitation occurrence is one of the most important factors in chute spillways designing due to the flow’s high velocity and the negative pressure (Azhdary Moghaddam & Hasanalipour Shahrabadi, ۲۰۲۰). By increasing dam’s height, overflow velocity increases on the weir and threats the structure and it may cause structural failure due to cavitation (Chanson, ۲۰۱۳). Cavitation occurs when the fluid pressure reaches its vapor pressure. Since high velocity and low pressure can cause cavitation, aeration has been recognized as one of the best ways to deal with cavitation (Pettersson, ۲۰۱۲). This study, considering the extracted results from the Flow-۳D numerical model of the chute spillway of Darian dam, investigates the probability of cavitation occurrence and examines its reliability. Hydraulic uncertainty in the design of this hydraulic structure can be attributed to the uncertainty of the hydraulic performance analysis. Therefore, knowing about the uncertainty characteristics of hydraulic engineering systems for assessing their reliability seems necessary (Yen et al., ۱۹۹۳). Hence, designation and operation of hydraulic engineering systems are always subject to uncertainties and probable failures. The reliability, ps, of a hydraulic engineering system is defined as the probability of safety in which the resistance, R, of the system exceeds the load, L, as follows (Chen, ۲۰۱۵): p_s=P(L≤R) (۱) Where P(۰) is probability. The failure probability, p_f, is a reliability complement and is expressed as follows: p_f=P[(L>R)]=۱- p_s (۲) Reliability development based on analytical methods of engineering applications has come in many references (Tung & Mays, ۱۹۸۰ and Yen & Tung, ۱۹۹۳). Therefore, based on reliability, in a control method, the probability of cavitation occurrence in the chute spillway can be investigated. In reliability analysis, the probabilistic calculations must be expressed in terms of a limited conditional function, W(X)=W(X_L ,X_R)as follows: p_s=P[W(X_L ,X_R)≥۰]= P[W(X)≥۰] (۳) Where X is the vector of basic random variables in load and resistance functions. In the reliability analysis, if W(X)> ۰, the system will be secure and in the W(X) <۰ system will fail. Accordingly, the eliability index, β, is used, which is defined as the ratio of the mean value, μ_W, to standard deviation, σ_W, the limited conditional function W(X) is defined as follows (Cornell, ۱۹۶۹): β=μ_W/σ_W (۴) The present study was carried out using the obtained results from the model developed by ۱:۵۰ scale plexiglass at the Water Research Institute of Iran. In this laboratory model, which consists of an inlet channel and a convergent thrower chute spillway, two aerators in the form of deflector were used at the intervals of ۲۱۱ and ۲۷۰ at the beginning of chute, in order to cope with cavitation phenomenon during the chute. An air duct was also used for air inlet on the left and right walls of the spillway. To measure the effective parameters in cavitation, seven discharges have been passed through spillway. As the pressure and average velocity are determined, the values of the cavitation index are calculated and compared with the values of the critical cavitation index, σ_cr. At any point when σ≤σ_cr, there is a danger of corrosion in that range (Chanson, ۱۹۹۳). In order to obtain uncertainty and calculate the reliability index of cavitation occurrence during a chute, it is needed to extract the limited conditional function. Therefore, for a constant flow between two points of flow, there would be the Bernoulli (energy) relation as follows (Falvey, ۱۹۹۰): σ= ( P_atm/γ- P_V/γ+h cos⁡θ )/(〖V_۰〗^۲/۲g) (۵) Where P_atm is the atmospheric pressure, γ is the unit weight of the water volume, θ is the angle of the ramp to the horizon, r is the curvature radius of the vertical arc, and h cos⁡θ is the flow depth perpendicular to the floor. Therefore, the limited conditional function can be written as follows: W(X)=(P_atm/γ- P_V/γ+h cos⁡θ )/(〖V_۰〗^۲/۲g) -σ_cr (۶) Flow-۳D is a powerful software in fluid dynamics. One of the major capabilities of this software is to model free-surface flows using finite volume method for hydraulic analysis. The spillway was modeled in three modes, without using aerator, ramp aerator, and ramp combination with aeration duct as detailed in Flow-۳D software. For each of the mentioned modes, seven discharges were tested. According to Equation (۶), velocity and pressure play a decisive and important role in the cavitation occurrence phenomenon. Therefore, the reliability should be evaluated with FORM (First Order Reliable Method) based on the probability distribution functions For this purpose, the most suitable probability distribution function of random variables of velocity and pressure on a laboratory model was extracted in different sections using Easy fit software. Probability distribution function is also considered normal for the other variables in the limited conditional function. These values are estimated for the constant gravity at altitudes of ۵۰۰ to ۷۰۰۰ m above the sea level for the unit weight, and vapor pressure at ۵ to ۳۵° C. For the critical cavitation index variable, the standard deviation is considered as ۰.۰۱. According to the conducted tests, for the velocity random variable, GEV (Generalized Extreme Value) distribution function, and for the pressure random variable, Burr (۴P) distribution function were presented as the best distribution function. The important point is to not follow the normal distribution above the random variables. Therefore, in order to evaluate the reliability with the FORM method, according to the above distributions, they should be converted into normal variables based on the existing methods. To this end, the non-normal distributions are transformed into the normal distribution by the method of Rackwitz and Fiiessler so that the value of the cumulative distribution function is equivalent to the original abnormal distribution at the design point of x_(i*). This point has the least distance from the origin in the standardized space of the boundary plane or the same limited conditional function. The reliability index will be equal to ۰.۴۲۰۴ before installing the aerator. As a result, reliability, p_s, and failure probability, p_f, are ۰.۶۶۲۹ and ۰.۳۳۷۱, respectively. This number indicates a high percentage for cavitation occurrence. Therefore, the use of aerator is inevitable to prevent imminent damage from cavitation. To deal with cavitation as planned in the laboratory, two aerators with listed specifications are embedded in a location where the cavitation index is critical. In order to analyze the reliability of cavitation occurrence after the aerator installation, the steps of the Hasofer-Lind algorithm are repeated. The modeling of ramps was performed separately in Flow-۳D software in order to compare the performance of aeration ducts as well as the probability of failure between aeration by ramp and the combination of ramps and aeration ducts. Installing an aerator in combination with a ramp and aerator duct greatly reduces the probability of cavitation occurrence. By installing aerator, the probability of cavitation occurrence will decrease in to about ۴ %. However, in the case of aeration only through the ramp, the risk of failure is equal to ۱۰%.

확률적 지정은 수력 공학에서 강력한 도구입니다. 유압 설계에서 임의 현상으로 인한 불확실성이 중요할 수 있습니다. 불확실성은 확률 밀도 함수, 신뢰 구간 또는 표준 편차 또는 무작위 매개변수의 변동 계수와 같은 통계적 토크로 표현될 수 있습니다. 캐비테이션 발생을 제어하는 것은 흐름의 높은 속도와 음압으로 인해 슈트 여수로 설계에서 가장 중요한 요소 중 하나입니다(Azhdary Moghaddam & Hasanalipour Shahrabadi, ۲۰۲۰). 댐의 높이를 높이면 둑의 범람속도가 증가하여 구조물을 위협하고 캐비테이션으로 인한 구조물의 파손을 유발할 수 있다(Chanson, ۲۰۱۳). 캐비테이션은 유체 압력이 증기압에 도달할 때 발생합니다. 높은 속도와 낮은 압력은 캐비테이션을 유발할 수 있으므로, 통기는 캐비테이션을 처리하는 가장 좋은 방법 중 하나로 인식되어 왔습니다(Pettersson, ۲۰۱۲). 본 연구에서는 Darian 댐의 슈트 여수로의 Flow-۳D 수치모델에서 추출된 결과를 고려하여 캐비테이션 발생 확률을 조사하고 그 신뢰성을 조사하였다. 이 수력구조의 설계에서 수력학적 불확실성은 수력성능 해석의 불확실성에 기인할 수 있다. 따라서 신뢰성을 평가하기 위해서는 수력공학 시스템의 불확도 특성에 대한 지식이 필요해 보인다(Yen et al., ۱۹۹۳). 따라서 수력 공학 시스템의 지정 및 작동은 항상 불확실성과 가능한 고장의 영향을 받습니다. 유압 공학 시스템의 신뢰성 ps는 저항 R, 시스템의 부하 L은 다음과 같이 초과됩니다(Chen, ۲۰۱۵): p_s=P(L≤R)(۱) 여기서 P(۰)은 확률입니다. 고장 확률 p_f는 신뢰도 보완이며 다음과 같이 표현됩니다. Mays, ۱۹۸۰ 및 Yen & Tung, ۱۹۹۳). 따라서 신뢰성을 기반으로 제어 방법에서 슈트 여수로의 캐비테이션 발생 확률을 조사할 수 있습니다. 신뢰도 분석에서 확률적 계산은 제한된 조건부 함수 W(X)=W(X_L , X_R)은 다음과 같습니다. p_s=P[W(X_L,X_R)≥۰]= P[W(X)≥۰] (۳) 여기서 X는 부하 및 저항 함수의 기본 랜덤 변수 벡터입니다. 신뢰도 분석에서 W(X)> ۰이면 시스템은 안전하고 W(X) <۰에서는 시스템이 실패합니다. 따라서 표준편차 σ_W에 대한 평균값 μ_W의 비율로 정의되는 신뢰도 지수 β가 사용되며, 제한된 조건부 함수 W(X)는 다음과 같이 정의됩니다(Cornell, ۱۹۶۹). β= μ_W/σ_W (۴) 본 연구는 이란 물연구소의 ۱:۵۰ scale plexiglass로 개발된 모델로부터 얻은 결과를 이용하여 수행하였다. 이 실험 모델에서, 입구 수로와 수렴형 투수 슈트 여수로로 구성되며 슈트 중 캐비테이션 현상에 대처하기 위해 슈트 초기에 ۲۱۱과 ۲۷۰ 간격으로 편향기 형태의 2개의 에어레이터를 사용하였다. 여수로 좌우 벽의 공기 유입구에도 공기 덕트가 사용되었습니다. 캐비테이션의 효과적인 매개변수를 측정하기 위해 7번의 배출이 방수로를 통과했습니다. 압력과 평균 속도가 결정되면 캐비테이션 지수 값이 계산되고 임계 캐비테이션 지수 σ_cr 값과 비교됩니다. σ≤σ_cr일 때 그 범위에서 부식의 위험이 있다(Chanson, ۱۹۹۳). 슈트 중 캐비테이션 발생의 불확실성을 구하고 신뢰도 지수를 계산하기 위해서는 제한된 조건부 함수를 추출할 필요가 있다. 따라서 두 지점 사이의 일정한 흐름에 대해 다음과 같은 Bernoulli(에너지) 관계가 있습니다(Falvey, ۱۹۹۰). σ= ( P_atm/γ- P_V/γ+h cos⁡θ )/(〖V_۰〗 ^۲/۲g) (۵) 여기서 P_atm은 대기압, γ는 물의 단위 중량, θ는 수평선에 대한 경사로의 각도, r은 수직 호의 곡률 반경, h cos⁡ θ는 바닥에 수직인 흐름 깊이입니다. 따라서 제한된 조건부 함수는 다음과 같이 쓸 수 있습니다. W(X)=(P_atm/γ- P_V/γ+h cos⁡θ )/(〖V_۰〗^۲/۲g) -σ_cr (۶) Flow-۳D는 유체 역학의 강력한 소프트웨어. 이 소프트웨어의 주요 기능 중 하나는 수리학적 해석을 위해 유한 체적 방법을 사용하여 자유 표면 흐름을 모델링하는 것입니다. 방수로는 Flow-۳D 소프트웨어에 자세히 설명된 바와 같이 폭기 장치, 램프 폭기 장치 및 폭기 덕트가 있는 램프 조합을 사용하지 않고 세 가지 모드로 모델링되었습니다. 언급된 각 모드에 대해 7개의 방전이 테스트되었습니다. 식 (۶)에 따르면 속도와 압력은 캐비테이션 발생 현상에 결정적이고 중요한 역할을 합니다. 따라서 확률분포함수에 기반한 FORM(First Order Reliable Method)으로 신뢰도를 평가해야 한다 이를 위해 실험실 모델에 대한 속도와 압력의 확률변수 중 가장 적합한 확률분포함수를 Easy fit을 이용하여 구간별로 추출하였다. 소프트웨어. 확률 분포 함수는 제한된 조건부 함수의 다른 변수에 대해서도 정상으로 간주됩니다. 이 값은 단위 중량의 경우 해발 ۵۰۰ ~ ۷۰۰۰ m 고도에서의 일정한 중력과 ۵ ~ ۳۵ ° C에서의 증기압으로 추정됩니다. 임계 캐비테이션 지수 변수의 표준 편차는 ۰.۰۱으로 간주됩니다. . 수행된 시험에 따르면 속도 확률변수는 GEV(Generalized Extreme Value) 분포함수로, 압력변수는 Burr(۴P) 분포함수가 가장 좋은 분포함수로 제시되었다. 중요한 점은 확률 변수 위의 정규 분포를 따르지 않는 것입니다. 따라서 FORM 방법으로 신뢰도를 평가하기 위해서는 위의 분포에 따라 기존 방법을 기반으로 정규 변수로 변환해야 합니다. 이를 위해, 비정규분포를 Rackwitz와 Fiiessler의 방법에 의해 정규분포로 변환하여 누적분포함수의 값이 x_(i*)의 설계점에서 원래의 비정상분포와 같도록 한다. 이 점은 경계면의 표준화된 공간 또는 동일한 제한된 조건부 함수에서 원점으로부터 최소 거리를 갖습니다. 신뢰성 지수는 폭기 장치를 설치하기 전의 ۰.۴۲۰۴과 같습니다. 그 결과 신뢰도 p_s와 고장확률 p_f는 각각 ۰.۶۶۲۹과 ۰.۳۳۷۱이다. 이 숫자는 캐비테이션 발생의 높은 비율을 나타냅니다. 따라서 캐비테이션으로 인한 즉각적인 손상을 방지하기 위해 폭기 장치의 사용이 불가피합니다. 실험실에서 계획한 대로 캐비테이션을 처리하기 위해, 나열된 사양을 가진 두 개의 폭기 장치는 캐비테이션 지수가 중요한 위치에 내장되어 있습니다. 폭기장치 설치 후 캐비테이션 발생의 신뢰성을 분석하기 위해 Hasofer-Lind 알고리즘의 단계를 반복합니다. 경사로의 모델링은 폭기 덕트의 성능과 경사로에 의한 폭기 및 경사로와 폭기 덕트의 조합 사이의 실패 확률을 비교하기 위해 Flow-۳D 소프트웨어에서 별도로 수행되었습니다. 경사로 및 폭기 덕트와 함께 폭기 장치를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 가능성이 크게 줄어듭니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다. 폭기 설치 후 캐비테이션 발생의 신뢰성을 분석하기 위해 Hasofer-Lind 알고리즘의 단계를 반복합니다. 경사로의 모델링은 폭기 덕트의 성능과 경사로에 의한 폭기 및 경사로와 폭기 덕트의 조합 사이의 실패 확률을 비교하기 위해 Flow-۳D 소프트웨어에서 별도로 수행되었습니다. 경사로 및 폭기 덕트와 함께 폭기 장치를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 가능성이 크게 줄어듭니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다. 폭기장치 설치 후 캐비테이션 발생의 신뢰성을 분석하기 위해 Hasofer-Lind 알고리즘의 단계를 반복합니다. 경사로의 모델링은 폭기 덕트의 성능과 경사로에 의한 폭기 및 경사로와 폭기 덕트의 조합 사이의 실패 확률을 비교하기 위해 Flow-۳D 소프트웨어에서 별도로 수행되었습니다. 경사로 및 폭기 덕트와 함께 폭기 장치를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 가능성이 크게 줄어듭니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다. 경사로의 모델링은 폭기 덕트의 성능과 경사로에 의한 폭기 및 경사로와 폭기 덕트의 조합 사이의 실패 확률을 비교하기 위해 Flow-۳D 소프트웨어에서 별도로 수행되었습니다. 경사로 및 폭기 덕트와 함께 폭기 장치를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 가능성이 크게 줄어듭니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다. 경사로의 모델링은 폭기 덕트의 성능과 경사로에 의한 폭기 및 경사로와 폭기 덕트의 조합 사이의 실패 확률을 비교하기 위해 Flow-۳D 소프트웨어에서 별도로 수행되었습니다. 경사로 및 폭기 덕트와 함께 폭기 장치를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 가능성이 크게 줄어듭니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다. 에어레이터를 설치하면 캐비테이션 발생 확률이 약 ۴%로 감소합니다. 그러나 램프를 통한 폭기의 경우 실패 위험은 ۱۰%와 같습니다.

Keywords

Aerator Probable Failure Reliability Method FORM Flow ۳D.

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig1

A survey of electromagnetic metal casting computation designs, present approaches, future possibilities, and practical issues

The European Physical Journal Plus volume 136, Article number: 704 (2021) Cite this article

15 Accesses
Metrics

Abstract

Electromagnetic metal casting (EMC) is a casting technique that uses electromagnetic energy to heat metal powders. It is a faster, cleaner, and less time-consuming operation. Solid metals create issues in electromagnetics since they reflect the electromagnetic radiation rather than consume it—electromagnetic energy processing results in sounded pieces with higher-ranking material properties and a more excellent microstructure solution. For the physical production of the electromagnetic casting process, knowledge of electromagnetic material interaction is critical. Even where the heated material is an excellent electromagnetic absorber, the total heating quality is sometimes insufficient. Numerical modelling works on finding the proper coupled effects between properties to bring out the most effective operation. The main parameters influencing the quality of output of the EMC process are: power dissipated per unit volume into the material, penetration depth of electromagnetics, complex magnetic permeability and complex dielectric permittivity. The contact mechanism and interference pattern also, in turn, determines the quality of the process. Only a few parameters, such as the environment’s temperature, the interference pattern, and the rate of metal solidification, can be controlled by AI models. Neural networks are used to achieve exact outcomes by stimulating the neurons in the human brain. Additive manufacturing (AM) is used to design mold and cores for metal casting. The models outperformed the traditional DFA optimization approach, which is susceptible to local minima. The system works only offline, so real-time analysis and corrections are not yet possible.

Korea Abstract

전자기 금속 주조 (EMC)는 전자기 에너지를 사용하여 금속 분말을 가열하는 주조 기술입니다. 더 빠르고 깨끗하며 시간이 덜 소요되는 작업입니다.

고체 금속은 전자기 복사를 소비하는 대신 반사하기 때문에 전자기학에서 문제를 일으킵니다. 전자기 에너지 처리는 더 높은 등급의 재료 특성과 더 우수한 미세 구조 솔루션을 가진 사운드 조각을 만듭니다.

전자기 주조 공정의 물리적 생산을 위해서는 전자기 물질 상호 작용에 대한 지식이 중요합니다. 가열된 물질이 우수한 전자기 흡수재인 경우에도 전체 가열 품질이 때때로 불충분합니다. 수치 모델링은 가장 효과적인 작업을 이끌어 내기 위해 속성 간의 적절한 결합 효과를 찾는데 사용됩니다.

EMC 공정의 출력 품질에 영향을 미치는 주요 매개 변수는 단위 부피당 재료로 분산되는 전력, 전자기의 침투 깊이, 복합 자기 투과성 및 복합 유전율입니다. 접촉 메커니즘과 간섭 패턴 또한 공정의 품질을 결정합니다. 환경 온도, 간섭 패턴 및 금속 응고 속도와 같은 몇 가지 매개 변수 만 AI 모델로 제어 할 수 있습니다.

신경망은 인간 뇌의 뉴런을 자극하여 정확한 결과를 얻기 위해 사용됩니다. 적층 제조 (AM)는 금속 주조용 몰드 및 코어를 설계하는 데 사용됩니다. 모델은 로컬 최소값에 영향을 받기 쉬운 기존 DFA 최적화 접근 방식을 능가했습니다. 이 시스템은 오프라인에서만 작동하므로 실시간 분석 및 수정은 아직 불가능합니다.

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig2

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig3

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig4

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig5

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig6

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig7

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig8

electromagnetic metal casting computation designs Fig9

References

1.J. Sun, W. Wang, Q. Yue, Review on electromagnetic-matter interaction fundamentals and efficient electromagnetic-associated heating strategies. Materials 9(4), 231 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9040231 ADS Article Google Scholar
2.E. Ghasali, A. Fazili, M. Alizadeh, K. Shirvanimoghaddam, T. Ebadzadeh, Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-TiC metal matrix composite prepared by conventional, electromagnetic and spark plasma sintering methods. Materials 10(11), 1255 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10111255 ADS Article Google Scholar
3.D. Agrawal, Latest global developments in electromagnetic materials processing. Mater. Res. Innov. 14(1), 3–8 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1179/143307510×12599329342926 Article Google Scholar
4.S. Singh, P. Singh, D. Gupta, V. Jain, R. Kumar, S. Kaushal, Development and characterization of electromagnetic processed cast iron joint. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2018.10.012 Article Google Scholar
5.S. Singh, D. Gupta, V. Jain, Electromagnetic melting and processing of metal–ceramic composite castings. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf. 232(7), 1235–1243 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/0954405416666900 Article Google Scholar
6.S. Singh, D. Gupta, V. Jain, Novel electromagnetic composite casting process: theory, feasibility and characterization. Mater. Des. 111, 51–59 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.08.071 Article Google Scholar
7.J. Lucas, J, What are electromagnetics? LiveScience. (2018). https://www.livescience.com/50259-Electromagnetics.html
8.R. Samyal, A.K. Bagha, R. Bedi, the casting of materials using electromagnetic energy: a review. Mater. Today Proc. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.255 Article Google Scholar
9.S. Singh, D. Gupta, V. Jain, Processing of Ni-WC-8Co MMC casting through electromagnetic melting. Mater. Manuf. Process. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2017.1291954 Article Google Scholar
10.R. Singh, S. Singh, V. Mahajan, Investigations for dimensional accuracy of investment casting process after cycle time reduction by advancements in shell moulding. Procedia Mater. Sci. 6, 859–865 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.103 Article Google Scholar
11.R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, On melting characteristics of bulk Al-7039 alloy during in-situ electromagnetic casting. Appl. Therm. Eng. 111, 660–675 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.09.122 Article Google Scholar
12.S. Zhang, 10 Different types of casting process. (2021). MachineMfg.com, https://www.machinemfg.com/types-of-casting/
13.Envirocare, Foundry health risks. (2013). https://envirocare.org/foundry-health-risks/
14.S.S. Gajmal, D.N. Raut, A review of opportunities and challenges in electromagnetic assisted casting. Recent Trends Product. Eng. 2(1) (2019)
15.R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, Electromagnetic-material interaction phenomena: heating mechanisms, challenges and opportunities in material processing. Compos. Part A (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.10.035 Article Google Scholar
16.S. Chandrasekaran, T. Basak, S. Ramanathan, Experimental and theoretical investigation on electromagnetic melting of metals. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 211(3), 482–487 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.11.001 Article Google Scholar
17.C.R. Bird, J.M. Mertz, U.S. Patent No. 4655276. (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC, 1987)
18.R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, Experimental investigation on in-situ electromagnetic casting of copper. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 346, 012052 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/346/1/012052 Article Google Scholar
19.V. Gangwar, S. Kumar, V. Singh, H. Singh, Effect of process parameters on hardness of AA-6063 in-situ electromagnetic casting by using taguchi method, in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 804(1) (IOP Publishing, 2020), p. 012019
20.X. Ye, S. Guo, L. Yang, J. Gao, J. Peng, T. Hu, L. Wang, M. Hou, Q. Luo, New utilization approach of electromagnetic thermal energy: preparation of metallic matrix diamond tool bit by electromagnetic hot-press sintering. J. Alloy. Compd. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.03.183 Article Google Scholar
21.S. Das, A.K. Mukhopadhyay, S. Datta, D. Basu, Prospects of Electromagnetic processing: an overview. Bull. Mater. Sci. 32(1), 1–13 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12034-009-0001-4 Article Google Scholar
22.K.L. Glass, D.M. Ashby, U.S. Patent No. 9050656. (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC, 2015)
23.S. Verma, P. Gupta, S. Srivastava, S. Kumar, A. Anand, An overview: casting/melting of non ferrous metallic materials using domestic electromagnetic oven. J. Mater. Sci. Mech. Eng. 4(4), (2017). p-ISSN: 2393-9095; e-ISSN: 2393-9109
24.S.S. Panda, V. Singh, A. Upadhyaya, D. Agrawal, Sintering response of austenitic (316L) and ferritic (434L) stainless steel consolidated in conventional and electromagnetic furnaces. Scripta Mater. 54(12), 2179–2183 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2006.02.034 Article Google Scholar
25.Y. Zhang, S. Yang, S. Wang, X. Liu, L. Li, Microwave/freeze casting assisted fabrication of carbon frameworks derived from embedded upholder in tremella for superior performance supercapacitors. Energy Storage Mater. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2018.08.006 Article Google Scholar
26.D. Thomas, P. Abhilash, M.T. Sebastian, Casting and characterization of LiMgPO4 glass free LTCC tape for electromagnetic applications. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 33(1), 87–93 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2012.08.002 Article Google Scholar
27.M.H. Awida, N. Shah, B. Warren, E. Ripley, A.E. Fathy, Modeling of an industrial Electromagnetic furnace for metal casting applications. 2008 IEEE MTT-S Int. Electromagn. Symp. Digest. (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/mwsym.2008.4633143 Article Google Scholar
28.P.K. Loharkar, A. Ingle, S. Jhavar, Parametric review of electromagnetic-based materials processing and its applications. J. Market. Res. 8(3), 3306–3326 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.04.004 Article Google Scholar
29.E.B. Ripley, J.A. Oberhaus, WWWeb search power page-melting and heat treating metals using electromagnetic heating-the potential of electromagnetic metal processing techniques for a wide variety of metals and alloys is. Ind. Heat. 72(5), 65–70 (2005)Google Scholar
30.J. Campbell, Complete Casting Handbook: Metal Casting Processes, Metallurgy, Techniques and Design (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015)Google Scholar
31.B. Ravi, Metal Casting: Computer-Aided Design and Analysis, 1st edn. (PHI Learning Ltd, 2005)Google Scholar
32.D.E. Clark, W.H. Sutton, Electromagnetic processing of materials. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 26(1), 299–331 (1996)ADS Article Google Scholar
33.A.D. Abdullin, New capabilities of software package ProCAST 2011 for modeling foundry operations. Metallurgist 56(5–6), 323–328 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11015-012-9578-8 Article Google Scholar
34.J. Ha, P. Cleary, V. Alguine, T. Nguyen, Simulation of die filling in gravity die casting using SPH and MAGMAsoft, in Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on CFD in Minerals & Process Industries (1999) pp. 423–428
35.M. Sirviö, M. Woś, Casting directly from a computer model by using advanced simulation software FLOW-3D Cast Ž. Arch. Foundry Eng. 9(1), 79–82 (2009)Google Scholar
36.NOVACAST Systems, Nova-Solid/Flow Brochure, NOVACAST, Ronneby (2015)
37.AutoCAST-X1 Brochure, 3D Foundry Tech, Mumbai
38.EKK, Inc. Metal Casting Simulation Software and Consulting Services, CAPCAST Brochure
39.P. Muenprasertdee, Solidification modeling of iron castings using SOLIDCast (2007)
40.CasCAE, CT-CasTest Inc. Oy, Kerava
41.E. Dominguez-Tortajada, J. Monzo-Cabrera, A. Diaz-Morcillo, Uniform electric field distribution in electromagnetic heating applicators by means of genetic algorithms optimization of dielectric multilayer structures. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Theory Tech. 55(1), 85–91 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1109/tmtt.2006.886913 ADS Article Google Scholar
42.B. Warren, M.H. Awida, A.E. Fathy, Electromagnetic heating of metals. IET Electromagn. Antennas Propag. 6(2), 196–205 (2012)Article Google Scholar
43.S. Ashouri, M. Nili-Ahmadabadi, M. Moradi, M. Iranpour, Semi-solid microstructure evolution during reheating of aluminum A356 alloy deformed severely by ECAP. J. Alloy. Compd. 466(1–2), 67–72 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2007.11.010 Article Google Scholar
44.Penn State, Metal Parts Made In The Electromagnetic Oven. ScienceDaily. (1999) Retrieved May 8, 2021, from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/06/990622055733.htm
45.R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, A review of research trends in electromagnetic processing of metal-based materials and opportunities in electromagnetic metal casting. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 41(3), 217–255 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/10408436.2016.1142421 ADS Article Google Scholar
46.D.K. Ghodgaonkar, V.V. Varadan, V.K. Varadan, Free-space measurement of complex permittivity and complex permeability of magnetic materials at Electromagnetic frequencies. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 39(2), 387–394 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1109/19.52520 Article Google Scholar
47.J. Baker-Jarvis, E.J. Vanzura, W.A. Kissick, Improved technique for determining complex permittivity with the transmission/reflection method. Microw. Theory Tech. IEEE Trans. 38, 1096–1103 (1990)ADS Article Google Scholar
48.M. Bologna, A. Petri, B. Tellini, C. Zappacosta, Effective magnetic permeability measurementin composite resonator structures. Instrum. Meas. IEEE Trans. 59, 1200–1206 (2010)Article Google Scholar
49.B. Ravi, G.L. Datta, Metal casting–back to future, in 52nd Indian Foundry Congress, (2004)
50.D. El Khaled, N. Novas, J.A. Gazquez, F. Manzano-Agugliaro. Microwave dielectric heating: applications on metals processing. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82, 2880–2892 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.043 Article Google Scholar
51.H. Sekiguchi, Y. Mori, Steam plasma reforming using Electromagnetic discharge. Thin Solid Films 435, 44–48 (2003)ADS Article Google Scholar
52.J. Sun, W. Wang, C. Zhao, Y. Zhang, C. Ma, Q. Yue, Study on the coupled effect of wave absorption and metal discharge generation under electromagnetic irradiation. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 53, 2042–2051 (2014)Article Google Scholar
53.K.I. Rybakov, E.A. Olevsky, E.V. Krikun, Electromagnetic sintering: fundamentals and modeling. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 96(4), 1003–1020 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.12278 Article Google Scholar
54.A.K. Shukla, A. Mondal, A. Upadhyaya, Numerical modeling of electromagnetic heating. Sci. Sinter. 42(1), 99–124 (2010)Article Google Scholar
55.M. Chiumenti, C. Agelet de Saracibar, M. Cervera, On the numerical modeling of the thermomechanical contact for metal casting analysis. J. Heat Transf. 130(6), (2008). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2897923 Article MATH Google Scholar
56.B. Ravi, Metal Casting: Computer-Aided Design and Analysis. (PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2005)
57.J.H. Lee, S.D. Noh, H.-J. Kim, Y.-S. Kang, Implementation of cyber-physical production systems for quality prediction and operation control in metal casting. Sensors 18, 1428 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/s18051428 ADS Article Google Scholar
58.B. Aksoy, M. Koru, Estimation of casting mold interfacial heat transfer coefficient in pressure die casting process by artificial intelligence methods. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 45, 8969–8980 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-020-04648-7 Article Google Scholar
59.S.S. Miriyala, V.R. Subramanian, K. Mitra, TRANSFORM-ANN for online optimization of complex industrial processes: casting process as case study. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 264(1), 294–309 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2017.05.026 MathSciNet Article MATH Google Scholar
60.J.K. Kittu, G.C.M. Patel, M. Parappagoudar, Modeling of pressure die casting process: an artificial intelligence approach. Int. J. Metalcast. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-015-0001-7 Article Google Scholar
61.W. Chen, B. Gutmann, C.O. Kappe, Characterization of electromagnetic-induced electric discharge phenomena in metal-solvent mixtures. ChemistryOpen 1, 39–48 (2012)Article Google Scholar
62.J. Walker, A. Prokop, C. Lynagh, B. Vuksanovich, B. Conner, K. Rogers, J. Thiel, E. MacDonald, Real-time process monitoring of core shifts during metal casting with wireless sensing and 3D sand printing. Addit. Manuf. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.018 Article Google Scholar
63.G.C. Manjunath Patel, A.K. Shettigar, M.B. Parappagoudar, A systematic approach to model and optimize wear behaviour of castings produced by squeeze casting process. J. Manuf. Process. 32, 199–212 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.02.004 Article Google Scholar
64.G.C. Manjunath Patel, P. Krishna, M.B. Parappagoudar, An intelligent system for squeeze casting process—soft computing based approach. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 86, 3051–3065 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-8416-8 Article Google Scholar
65.M. Ferguson, R. Ak, Y.T. Lee, K.H. Law, Automatic localization of casting defects with convolutional neural networks, in 2017 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data) (Boston, MA, USA, 2017), pp. 1726–1735. https://doi.org/10.1109/BigData.2017.8258115.
66.P.K.D.V. Yarlagadda, Prediction of die casting process parameters by using an artificial neural network model for zinc alloys. Int. J. Prod. Res. 38(1), 119–139 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1080/002075400189617 Article MATH Google Scholar
67.G.C. ManjunathPatel, A.K. Shettigar, P. Krishna, M.B. Parappagoudar, Back propagation genetic and recurrent neural network applications in modelling and analysis of squeeze casting process. Appl. Soft Comput. 59, 418–437 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2017.06.018 Article Google Scholar
68.J. Zheng, Q. Wang, P. Zhao et al., Optimization of high-pressure die-casting process parameters using artificial neural network. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 44, 667–674 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-008-1886-6 Article Google Scholar
69.E. Mares, J. Sokolowski, Artificial intelligence-based control system for the analysis of metal casting properties. J. Achiev. Mater. Manuf. Eng. 40, 149–154 (2010)Google Scholar
70.K.S. Senthil, S. Muthukumaran, C. Chandrasekhar Reddy, Suitability of friction welding of tube to tube plate using an external tool process for different tube diameters—a study. Exp. Tech. 37(6), 8–14 (2013)Article Google Scholar
71.N.K. Bhoi, H. Singh, S. Pratap, P.K. Jain, Electromagnetic material processing: a clean, green, and sustainable approach. Sustain. Eng. Prod. Manuf. Technol. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-816564-5.00001-3 Article Google Scholar
72.K.S. Senthil, D.A. Daniel, An investigation of boiler grade tube and tube plate without block by using friction welding process. Mater. Today Proc. 5(2), 8567–8576 (2018)Article Google Scholar
73.E. Hetmaniok, D. Słota, A. Zielonka, Restoration of the cooling conditions in a three-dimensional continuous casting process using artificial intelligence algorithms. Appl. Math. Modell. 39(16), 4797–4807 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2015.03.056 Article MATH Google Scholar
74.C.V. Kumar, S. Muthukumaran, A. Pradeep, S.S. Kumaran, Optimizational study of friction welding of steel tube to aluminum tube plate using an external tool process. Int. J. Mech. Mater. Eng. 6(2), 300–306 (2011)Google Scholar
75.T. Adithiyaa, D. Chandramohan, T. Sathish, Optimal prediction of process parameters by GWO-KNN in stirring-squeeze casting of AA2219 reinforced metal matrix composites. Mater. Today Proc. 150, 1598 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.10.051 Article Google Scholar
76.B.P. Pehrson, A.F. Moore (2014). U.S. Patent No. 8708031 (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, DC, 2014)
77.Liu, J., & Rynerson, M. L. (2008). U.S. Patent No. 7,461,684. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
78.K. Salonitis, B. Zeng, H.A. Mehrabi, M. Jolly, The challenges for energy efficient casting processes. Procedia CIRP 40, 24–29 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.043 Article Google Scholar
79.R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, Effect of solidification environment on microstructure and indentation hardness of Al–Zn–Mg alloy casts developed using electromagnetic heating. Int. J. Metal Cast. 10, 1–13 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-017-0176-1 Article Google Scholar
80.R.R. Mishra, A.K. Sharma, Effect of susceptor and Mold material on microstructure of in-situ electromagnetic casts of Al–Zn–Mg alloy. Mater. Des. 131, 428–440 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.06.038 Article Google Scholar
81.S. Kaushal, S. Bohra, D. Gupta, V. Jain, On processing and characterization of Cu–Mo-based castings through electromagnetic heating. Int. J. Metalcast. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40962-020-00481-8 Article Google Scholar
82.S. Nandwani, S. Vardhan, A.K. Bagha, A literature review on the exposure time of electromagnetic based welding of different materials. Mater. Today Proc. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.10.056 Article Google Scholar
83.F.J.B. Brum, S.C. Amico, I. Vedana, J.A. Spim, Electromagnetic dewaxing applied to the investment casting process. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 209(7), 3166–3171 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.07.024 Article Google Scholar
84.M.P. Reddy, R.A. Shakoor, G. Parande, V. Manakari, F. Ubaid, A.M.A. Mohamed, M. Gupta, Enhanced performance of nano-sized SiC reinforced Al metal matrix nanocomposites synthesized through electromagnetic sintering and hot extrusion techniques. Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int. 27(5), 606–614 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2017.08.015 Article Google Scholar
85.V.R. Kalamkar, K. Monkova, (Eds.), Advances in Mechanical Engineering. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. (2021) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3639-7
86.V. Bist, A.K. Sharma, P. Kumar, Development and microstructural characterisations of the lead casting using electromagnetic technology. Manager’s J. Mech. Eng. 4(4), 6 (2014). https://doi.org/10.26634/jme.4.4.2840 Article Google Scholar
87.A. Sharma, A. Chouhan, L. Pavithran, U. Chadha, S.K. Selvaraj, Implementation of LSS framework in automotive component manufacturing: a review, current scenario and future directions. Mater Today: Proc. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2021.02.374 Article Google Scholar

원문 바로가기

Figure 1 - General diagram of the forehead and body of the concentrated

Laboratory and Numerical Study of Dynamics Salty Density Current in The Reservoirs

저수지의 동적 염분 흐름의 실험 및 수치해석적 연구

Authors

¹ Water resource expert Khuzestan Water and Power Authority
² shahid chamran univercity of ahwaz

Since the characteristics of density current is affected by different parameters, the effect of discharge rate changes, gradient and the concentration of density current on speed of the forehead and also the speed distribution in density current’s body have been investigated by physical and three-dimensional mathematical model (Flow-3d) in this research. For these purposes, different tests in the form of salty density current were done with three inflow discharge rates (0.7, 1 and 1.3 liters per second) and three different slopes (0, 1 and 2.2 percent). As well as to evaluate the effect of density changes on the flow characteristics, the concentration of 10, 15 and 20 grams per liter were used. In order to measure the speed of the forehead, velocity distribution in the body and its changes with flow, density and different slopes, video camera and ultrasound profiler speedometer were used in this study. Then, forehead speed and velocity distribution in the current’s body were achieved using six different turbulence models which are available on the software of “Flow-3D”. Comparing the results of physical and mathematical model showed that Eddy turbulence model and laminar flow mode have better accuracy in relation to other turbulent models. It should be noted that Reynolds number on experiments are at the range of 2000-4000.

밀도 흐름의 특성은 서로 다른 파라미터에 의해 영향을 받기 때문에 방출 속도 변화, 구배 및 밀도 흐름의 농도가 수두 속도에 미치는 영향과 밀도 흐름의 볼륨 속도 분포도 물리적 및 3차원 수학 모델(Flow-3d)에 의해 조사되었습니다.

이러한 목적을 위해 세 가지 유입 배출 속도(초당 0.7, 1 및 1.3L)와 세 가지 다른 경사도(0, 1, 2.2%)로 염분 밀도 흐름 형태의 다른 테스트가 수행되었습니다.

밀도 변화가 흐름 특성에 미치는 영향을 평가하기 위해 리터당 10, 15, 20g의 농도를 사용했습니다. 이 연구에서는 수두의 속도를 측정하기 위해 체내의 속도 분포와 흐름, 밀도 및 다양한 기울기와 함께 변화된 속도, 비디오 카메라 및 초음파 프로파일러 속도계를 사용했습니다.

그런 다음, “Flow-3D” 소프트웨어에서 사용할 수 있는 6가지 난류 모델을 사용하여 현재 볼륨의 수두 속도와 속도 분포를 달성했습니다.

물리적 모델과 수학적 모델의 결과를 비교한 결과, 에디 난류 모델과 층류 모드가 다른 난류 모델과 비교하여 더 나은 정확도를 가지고 있다는 것을 보여주었습니다.

레이놀즈 실험 번호는 2000-4000 범위라는 점에 유의해야 합니다.

Figure 2 – Dimensional profile of velocity distribution in concentrated flow (Graph and Altinacar, 1662)

Figure 1 - Schematic drawing of the physical model used — Figure 1 – Schematic drawing of the physical model used

Figure 0 - Sample of the concentrated flow created in the laboratory (front and body of concentrated flow) — Figure 0 – Sample of the concentrated flow created in the laboratory (front and body of concentrated flow)

Figure 6 - Mixing intensity values against Richardson number and comparing it with the results of other researchers — Figure 6 – Mixing intensity values against Richardson number and comparing it with the results of other researchers

Reference

1- حقی آبی، ا. 1383. بررسی اثر شیب کف بر پروفیل سرعت جریان غلیظ رساله دکتری رشته سازه های آبی ، دانشکده مهندسی علوم آب، دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز.

2- کاهه، م. قمشی، م. و س، ح، موسوی جهرمی، 1391. بررسی آزمایشگاهی سرعت پیشروی جریان غلیظ بر روی سطوح زبر. علوم و مهندسی آبیاری، 35(1): 101-110.

3- کشتکار، ش. ایوب زاده، س ع. و ب، فیروزآبادی، 1389 . بررسی پروفیل سرعت و غلظت جریان گل آلود با استفاده از مدل فیزیکی. پژوهش‌های آبخیزداری،87(2): 43-36.

4- کوتی، ف. کاشفی پور، س، م. و م قمشی، 1391. تجزیه و تحلیل پروفیل های سرعت در جریان غلیظ. مجله ی علوم و فنون کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی، علوم آب و خاک، 59: 29-15.

5- Altinakar, M.S., Graf, W.H. and , E.J, Hopfinger. 1990. Weakly depositing turbidity current on a small slope. Journal of Hydraulic Research. 28(1): 55-80.

6- Baas, J.H. McCaffrey, W.D. Haughton P.D.W. and C, Choux. 2005. Coupling between suspended sediment distribution and turbulence structure in a laboratory turbidity current. Journal of Geophysics Research, 110: 20-32.

7- Barahmand, N. and A, Shamsai. 2010. Experimental and theoretical study of density jumps on smooth and rough beds”. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 15(4): 285-307.

8- Britter, R.E. and P, Linden. 1980.The motion of the front of a gravity current traveling down an incline. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 99(3): 531- 543.

9- Buckee, C. Kneller, B. and J, Peakall. 2001. Turbulence structure in steady solute-driven gravity currents Blackwell Oxford pp, 173-188.

10- Choux, C.M.A. Baas, J.H. McCaffrey, W.D. and P.D.W, Haughton. 2005. Comparison of spatio–temporal evolution of experimental particulate gravity flows at two different initial concentrations based on velocity grain size and density data. Sedimentary Geology, 179: 49-69.

11- FathiMoghadam, M. TorabiPoudeh, H. Ghomshi, M. and M, Shafaei. 2008. The density current head velocity in expansion reaches. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management, 13(1): 63-68.

12- Ghomeshi, M. 1995. Reservoir sedimentationmodeling. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Wollongong. Australia.

Graf, W.H. and M, S, Altinakar. 1998. Fluvial Hydraulics, Flow and Transport Processes in Channels of Simple Geometry. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, England.

14- Ieong, K, K. Mok, K,M. and H, Yeh. 2006. Fluctuation of the front propagation speed of developed gravity current. Journal of Hydrodynamics, 18(3): 351-355.

15- LaRocca, M. Adduce, C. Sciortino, G. And A, B, Pinzon. 2008. Experimental and numerical simulation of three-dimensional gravity currents on smooth and rough bottom. Physics of Fluids, 20, 106603.

16- McCaffrey, W, D. Choux, C, M. Baas, J, H. And P, D, W, Haughton. 2003. Spatio-temporal evolution of velocity structure concentration and grainsize stratification within experimental particulate gravity currents. Marine and Petroleum Geology. 20: 851-860.

17- Sequeiros, O, E. Spinewine, B. Beaubouef, R, T. Sun, T. Garcia, H. M., and G, Parker. 2010. Characteristics of Velocity and Excess Density Profiles of Saline Underflows and Turbidity Currents Flowing over a Mobile Bed”. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 136(7): 167-180.

18- Turner, J, S. 1973. Buoyancy Effects in Fluids. Cambridge University Press London, U.K, pp. 178-181.

19- Yu, W, S. Lee, H, Y. And M, S, Hsu. 2000. Experiments on deposition behavior of fine in a reservoir. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 126(12): 912-920.

PDF View

The 3D computational domain model (50–18.6) slope change, and boundary condition for (50–30 slope change) model.

Numerical investigation of flow characteristics over stepped spillways

Güven, Aytaç
Mahmood, Ahmed Hussein
Water Supply (2021) 21 (3): 1344–1355.
https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2020.283 Article history

Abstract

Spillways are constructed to evacuate flood discharge safely so that a flood wave does not overtop the dam body. There are different types of spillways, with the ogee type being the conventional one. A stepped spillway is an example of a nonconventional spillway. The turbulent flow over a stepped spillway was studied numerically by using the Flow-3D package. Different fluid flow characteristics such as longitudinal flow velocity, temperature distribution, density and chemical concentration can be well simulated by Flow-3D. In this study, the influence of slope changes on flow characteristics such as air entrainment, velocity distribution and dynamic pressures distribution over a stepped spillway was modelled by Flow-3D. The results from the numerical model were compared with an experimental study done by others in the literature. Two models of a stepped spillway with different discharge for each model were simulated. The turbulent flow in the experimental model was simulated by the Renormalized Group (RNG) turbulence scheme in the numerical model. A good agreement was achieved between the numerical results and the observed ones, which are exhibited in terms of graphics and statistical tables.

배수로는 홍수가 댐 몸체 위로 넘치지 않도록 안전하게 홍수를 피할 수 있도록 건설되었습니다. 다른 유형의 배수로가 있으며, ogee 유형이 기존 유형입니다. 계단식 배수로는 비 전통적인 배수로의 예입니다. 계단식 배수로 위의 난류는 Flow-3D 패키지를 사용하여 수치적으로 연구되었습니다.

세로 유속, 온도 분포, 밀도 및 화학 농도와 같은 다양한 유체 흐름 특성은 Flow-3D로 잘 시뮬레이션 할 수 있습니다. 이 연구에서는 계단식 배수로에 대한 공기 혼입, 속도 분포 및 동적 압력 분포와 같은 유동 특성에 대한 경사 변화의 영향을 Flow-3D로 모델링 했습니다.

수치 모델의 결과는 문헌에서 다른 사람들이 수행한 실험 연구와 비교되었습니다. 각 모델에 대해 서로 다른 배출이 있는 계단식 배수로의 두 모델이 시뮬레이션되었습니다. 실험 모델의 난류 흐름은 수치 모델의 Renormalized Group (RNG) 난류 계획에 의해 시뮬레이션되었습니다. 수치 결과와 관찰 된 결과 사이에 좋은 일치가 이루어졌으며, 이는 그래픽 및 통계 테이블로 표시됩니다.

HIGHLIGHTS

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: Listen

A numerical model was developed for stepped spillways.
The turbulent flow was simulated by the Renormalized Group (RNG) model.
Both numerical and experimental results showed that flow characteristics are greatly affected by abrupt slope change on the steps.

Keyword

CFD, numerical modelling, slope change, stepped spillway, turbulent flow

INTRODUCTION

댐 구조는 물 보호가 생활의 핵심이기 때문에 물을 저장하거나 물을 운반하는 전 세계에서 가장 중요한 프로젝트입니다. 그리고 여수로는 댐의 가장 중요한 부분 중 하나로 분류됩니다. 홍수로 인한 파괴 나 피해로부터 댐을 보호하기 위해 여수로가 건설됩니다.

수력 발전, 항해, 레크리에이션 및 어업의 중요성을 감안할 때 댐 건설 및 홍수 통제는 전 세계적으로 매우 중요한 문제로 간주 될 수 있습니다. 많은 유형의 배수로가 있지만 가장 일반적인 유형은 다음과 같습니다 : ogee 배수로, 자유 낙하 배수로, 사이펀 배수로, 슈트 배수로, 측면 채널 배수로, 터널 배수로, 샤프트 배수로 및 계단식 배수로.

그리고 모든 여수로는 입구 채널, 제어 구조, 배출 캐리어 및 출구 채널의 네 가지 필수 구성 요소로 구성됩니다. 특히 롤러 압축 콘크리트 (RCC) 댐 건설 기술과 더 쉽고 빠르며 저렴한 건설 기술로 분류 된 계단식 배수로 건설과 관련하여 최근 수십 년 동안 많은 계단식 배수로가 건설되었습니다 (Chanson 2002; Felder & Chanson 2011).

계단식 배수로 구조는 캐비테이션 위험을 감소시키는 에너지 소산 속도를 증가시킵니다 (Boes & Hager 2003b). 계단식 배수로는 다양한 조건에서 더 매력적으로 만드는 장점이 있습니다.

계단식 배수로의 흐름 거동은 일반적으로 낮잠, 천이 및 스키밍 흐름 체제의 세 가지 다른 영역으로 분류됩니다 (Chanson 2002). 유속이 낮을 때 nappe 흐름 체제가 발생하고 자유 낙하하는 낮잠의 시퀀스로 특징 지워지는 반면, 스키밍 흐름 체제에서는 물이 외부 계단 가장자리 위의 유사 바닥에서 일관된 흐름으로 계단 위로 흐릅니다.

또한 주요 흐름에서 3 차원 재순환 소용돌이가 발생한다는 것도 분명합니다 (예 : Chanson 2002; Gonzalez & Chanson 2008). 계단 가장자리 근처의 의사 바닥에서 흐름의 방향은 가상 바닥과 가상으로 정렬됩니다. Takahashi & Ohtsu (2012)에 따르면, 스키밍 흐름 체제에서 주어진 유속에 대해 흐름은 계단 가장자리 근처의 수평 계단면에 영향을 미치고 슈트 경사가 감소하면 충돌 영역의 면적이 증가합니다. 전이 흐름 체제는 나페 흐름과 스키밍 흐름 체제 사이에서 발생합니다. 계단식 배수로를 설계 할 때 스키밍 흐름 체계를 고려해야합니다 (예 : Chanson 1994, Matos 2000, Chanson 2002, Boes & Hager 2003a).

CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics), 즉 수력 공학의 수치 모델은 일반적으로 물리적 모델에 소요되는 총 비용과 시간을 줄여줍니다. 따라서 수치 모델은 실험 모델보다 빠르고 저렴한 것으로 분류되며 동시에 하나 이상의 목적으로 사용될 수도 있습니다. 사용 가능한 많은 CFD 소프트웨어 패키지가 있지만 가장 널리 사용되는 것은 FLOW-3D입니다. 이 연구에서는 Flow 3D 소프트웨어를 사용하여 유량이 서로 다른 두 모델에 대해 계단식 배수로에서 공기 농도, 속도 분포 및 동적 압력 분포를 시뮬레이션합니다.

Roshan et al. (2010)은 서로 다른 수의 계단 및 배출을 가진 계단식 배수로의 두 가지 물리적 모델에 대한 흐름 체제 및 에너지 소산 조사를 연구했습니다. 실험 모델의 기울기는 각각 19.2 %, 12 단계와 23 단계의 수입니다. 결과는 23 단계 물리적 모델에서 관찰 된 흐름 영역이 12 단계 모델보다 더 수용 가능한 것으로 간주되었음을 보여줍니다. 그러나 12 단계 모델의 에너지 손실은 23 단계 모델보다 더 많았습니다. 그리고 실험은 스키밍 흐름 체제에서 23 단계 모델의 에너지 소산이 12 단계 모델보다 약 12 % 더 적다는 것을 관찰했습니다.

Ghaderi et al. (2020a)는 계단 크기와 유속이 다른 정련 매개 변수의 영향을 조사하기 위해 계단식 배수로에 대한 실험 연구를 수행했습니다. 그 결과, 흐름 체계가 냅페 흐름 체계에서 발생하는 최소 scouring 깊이와 같은 scouring 구멍 치수에 영향을 미친다는 것을 보여주었습니다. 또한 테일 워터 깊이와 계단 크기는 최대 scouring깊이에 대한 실제 매개 변수입니다. 테일 워터의 깊이를 6.31cm에서 8.54 및 11.82cm로 늘림으로써 수세 깊이가 각각 18.56 % 및 11.42 % 증가했습니다. 또한 이 증가하는 테일 워터 깊이는 scouring 길이를 각각 31.43 % 및 16.55 % 감소 시킵니다. 또한 유속을 높이면 Froude 수가 증가하고 흐름의 운동량이 증가하면 scouring이 촉진됩니다. 또한 결과는 중간의 scouring이 횡단면의 측벽보다 적다는 것을 나타냅니다. 계단식 배수로 하류의 최대 scouring 깊이를 예측 한 후 실험 결과와 비교하기 위한 실험식이 제안 되었습니다. 그리고 비교 결과 제안 된 공식은 각각 3.86 %와 9.31 %의 상대 오차와 최대 오차 내에서 scouring 깊이를 예측할 수 있음을 보여주었습니다.

Ghaderi et al. (2020b)는 사다리꼴 미로 모양 (TLS) 단계의 수치 조사를 했습니다. 결과는 이러한 유형의 배수로가 확대 비율 LT / Wt (LT는 총 가장자리 길이, Wt는 배수로의 폭)를 증가시키기 때문에 더 나은 성능을 갖는 것으로 관찰되었습니다. 또한 사다리꼴 미로 모양의 계단식 배수로는 더 큰 마찰 계수와 더 낮은 잔류 수두를 가지고 있습니다. 마찰 계수는 다양한 배율에 대해 0.79에서 1.33까지 다르며 평평한 계단식 배수로의 경우 대략 0.66과 같습니다. 또한 TLS 계단식 배수로에서 잔류 수두의 비율 (Hres / dc)은 약 2.89이고 평평한 계단식 배수로의 경우 약 4.32와 같습니다.

Shahheydari et al. (2015)는 Flow-3D 소프트웨어, RNG k-ε 모델 및 VOF (Volume of Fluid) 방법을 사용하여 배출 계수 및 에너지 소산과 같은 자유 표면 흐름의 프로파일을 연구하여 스키밍 흐름 체제에서 계단식 배수로에 대한 흐름을 조사했습니다. 실험 결과와 비교했습니다. 결과는 에너지 소산 율과 방전 계수율의 관계가 역으로 실험 모델의 결과와 잘 일치 함을 보여 주었다.

Mohammad Rezapour Tabari & Tavakoli (2016)는 계단 높이 (h), 계단 길이 (L), 계단 수 (Ns) 및 단위 폭의 방전 (q)과 같은 다양한 매개 변수가 계단식 에너지 소산에 미치는 영향을 조사했습니다. 방수로. 그들은 해석에 FLOW-3D 소프트웨어를 사용하여 계단식 배수로에서 에너지 손실과 임계 흐름 깊이 사이의 관계를 평가했습니다. 또한 유동 난류에 사용되는 방정식과 표준 k-ɛ 모델을 풀기 위해 유한 체적 방법을 적용했습니다. 결과에 따르면 스텝 수가 증가하고 유량 배출량이 증가하면 에너지 손실이 감소합니다. 얻은 결과를 다른 연구와 비교하고 경험적, 수학적 조사를 수행하여 결국 합격 가능한 결과를 얻었습니다.

METHODOLOGY

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: ListenFor all numerical models the basic principle is very similar: a set of partial differential equations (PDE) present the physical problems. The flow of fluids (gas and liquid) are governed by the conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy. For Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), the PDE system is substituted by a set of algebraic equations which can be worked out by using numerical methods (Versteeg & Malalasekera 2007). Flow-3D uses the finite volume approach to solve the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation, by applying the technique of Fractional Area/Volume Obstacle Representation (FAVOR) to define an obstacle (Flow Science Inc. 2012). Equations (1) and (2) are RANS and continuity equations with FAVOR variables that are applied for incompressible flows.

(1)

(2)where is the velocity in x_i direction, t is the time, is the fractional area open to flow in the subscript directions, is the volume fraction of fluid in each cell, p is the hydrostatic pressure, is the density, is the gravitational force in subscript directions and is the Reynolds stresses.

Turbulence modelling is one of three key elements in CFD (Gunal 1996). There are many types of turbulence models, but the most common are Zero-equation models, One-equation models, Two-equation models, Reynolds Stress/Flux models and Algebraic Stress/Flux models. In FLOW-3D software, five turbulence models are available. The formulation used in the FLOW-3D software differs slightly from other formulations that includes the influence of the fractional areas/volumes of the FAVOR^TM method and generalizes the turbulence production (or decay) associated with buoyancy forces. The latter generalization, for example, includes buoyancy effects associated with non-inertial accelerations.

The available turbulence models in Flow-3D software are the Prandtl Mixing Length Model, the One-Equation Turbulent Energy Model, the Two-Equation Standard Model, the Two-Equation Renormalization-Group (RNG) Model and large Eddy Simulation Model (Flow Science Inc. 2012).In this research the RNG model was selected because this model is more commonly used than other models in dealing with particles; moreover, it is more accurate to work with air entrainment and other particles. In general, the RNG model is classified as a more widely-used application than the standard k-ɛ model. And in particular, the RNG model is more accurate in flows that have strong shear regions than the standard k-ɛ model and it is defined to describe low intensity turbulent flows. For the turbulent dissipation it solves an additional transport equation:

(3)where CDIS1, CDIS2, and CDIS3 are dimensionless parameters and the user can modify them. The diffusion of dissipation, Diff ɛ, is

(4)where u, v and w are the x, y and z coordinates of the fluid velocity; ⁠, ⁠, and ⁠, are FLOW-3D’s FAVOR^TM defined terms; and are turbulence due to shearing and buoyancy effects, respectively. R and are related to the cylindrical coordinate system. The default values of RMTKE, CDIS1 and CNU differ, being 1.39, 1.42 and 0.085 respectively. And CDIS2 is calculated from turbulent production (⁠⁠) and turbulent kinetic energy (⁠⁠).The kinematic turbulent viscosity is the same in all turbulence transport models and is calculated from

(5)where ⁠: is the turbulent kinematic viscosity. is defined as the numerical challenge between the RNG and the two-equation k-ɛ models, found in the equation below. To avoid an unphysically large result for in Equation (3), since this equation could produce a value for very close to zero and also because the physical value of may approach to zero in such cases, the value of is calculated from the following equation:

(6)where ⁠: the turbulent length scale.

VOF and FAVOR are classifications of volume-fraction methods. In these two methods, firstly the area should be subdivided into a control volume grid or a small element. Each flow parameter like velocity, temperature and pressure values within the element are computed for each element containing liquids. Generally, these values represent the volumetric average of values in the elements.Numerous methods have been used recently to solve free infinite boundaries in the various numerical simulations. VOF is an easy and powerful method created based on the concept of a fractional intensity of fluid. A significant number of studies have confirmed that this method is more flexible and efficient than others dealing with the configurations of a complex free boundary. By using VOF technology the Flow-3D free surface was modelled and first declared in Hirt & Nichols (1981). In the VOF method there are three ingredients: a planner to define the surface, an algorithm for tracking the surface as a net mediator moving over a computational grid, and application of the boundary conditions to the surface. Configurations of the fluids are defined in terms of VOF function, F (x, y, z, t) (Hirt & Nichols 1981). And this VOF function shows the volume of flow per unit volume

(7)

(8)

(9)where is the density of the fluid, is a turbulent diffusion term, is a mass source, is the fractional volume open to flow. The components of velocity (u, v, w) are in the direction of coordinates (x, y, z) or (r, ⁠). in the x-direction is the fractional area open to flow, and are identical area fractions for flow in the y and z directions. The R coefficient is based on the selection of the coordinate system.

The FAVOR method is a different method and uses another volume fraction technique, which is only used to define the geometry, such as the volume of liquid in each cell used to determine the position of fluid surfaces. Another fractional volume can be used to define the solid surface. Then, this information is used to determine the boundary conditions of the wall that the flow should be adapted for.

Case study

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: Listen

In this study, the experimental results of Ostad Mirza (2016) was simulated. In a channel composed of two 4 m long modules, with a transparent sidewall of height 0.6 m and 0.5 m width. The upstream chute slope (i.e. pseudo-bottom angle) Ɵ1 = 50°, the downstream chute slope Ɵ2 = 30° or 18.6°, the step heights h = 0.06 m, the total number of steps along the 50° chute 41 steps, the total number of steps along the 30° chute 34 steps and the total number of steps along the 18.6° chute 20 steps.

The flume inflow tool contained a jetbox with a maximum opening set to 0.12 meters, designed for passing the maximum unit discharge of 0.48 m²/s. The measurements of the flow properties (i.e. air concentration and velocity) were computed perpendicular to the pseudo-bottom as shown in Figure 1 at the centre of twenty stream-wise cross-sections, along the stepped chute, (i.e. in five steps up on the slope change and fifteen steps down on the slope change, namely from step number −09 to +23 on 50°–30° slope change, or from −09 to +15 on 50°–18.6° slope change, respectively).

Sketch of the air concentration C and velocity V measured perpendicular to the pseudo-bottom used by Mirza (Ostad Mirza 2016).

Pressure sensors were arranged with the x/l values for different slope change as shown in Table 1, where x is the distance from the step edge, along the horizontal step face, and l is the length of the horizontal step face. The location of pressure sensors is shown in Table 1.Table 1

Location of pressure sensors on horizontal step faces

Θ(°)	L(m)			x/l (–)
50.0	0.050	0.35	0.64	–	–	–
30.0	0.104	0.17	0.50	0.84	–	–
18.6	0.178	0.10	0.30	0.50	0.7	0.88

Location of pressure sensors on horizontal step faces

Inlet boundary condition for Q = 0.235 m3/s and fluid elevation 4.21834 m.

Inlet boundary condition for Q = 0.235 m³/s and fluid elevation 4.21834 m.

Numerical model set-up

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: Listen

A 3D numerical model of hydraulic phenomena was simulated based on an experimental study by Ostad Mirza (2016). The water surcharge and flow pressure over the stepped spillway was computed for two models of a stepped spillway with different discharge for each model. In this study, the package was used to simulate the flow parameters such as air entrainment, velocity distribution and dynamic pressures. The solver uses the finite volume technique to discretize the computational domain. In every test run, one incompressible fluid flow with a free surface flow selected at 20̊ was used for this simulation model. Table 2 shows the variables used in test runs.Table 2

Variables used in test runs

Test no.	Θ₁ (°)	Θ₂ (°)	h(m)	d₀	q (m³s⁻¹)	d_c/h (–)
1	50	18.6	0.06	0.045	0.1	2.6
2	50	18.6	0.06	0.082	0.235	4.6
3	50	30.0	0.06	0.045	0.1	2.6
4	50	30.0	0.06	0.082	0.235	4.6

Table 2 Variables used in test runs

For stepped spillway simulation, several parameters should be specified to get accurate simulations, which is the scope of this research. Viscosity and turbulent, gravity and non-inertial reference frame, air entrainment, density evaluation and drift-flux should be activated for these simulations. There are five different choices in the ‘viscosity and turbulent’ option, in the viscosity flow and Renormalized Group (RNG) model. Then a dynamical model is selected as the second option, the ‘gravity and non-inertial reference frame’. Only the z-component was inputted as a negative 9.81 m/s² and this value represents gravitational acceleration but in the same option the x and y components will be zero. Air entrainment is selected. Finally, in the drift-flux model, the density of phase one is input as (water) 1,000 kg/m³ and the density of phase two (air) as 1.225 kg/m³. Minimum volume fraction of phase one is input equal to 0.1 and maximum volume fraction of phase two to 1 to allow air concentration to reach 90%, then the option allowing gas to escape at free surface is selected, to obtain closer simulation.

The flow domain is divided into small regions relatively by the mesh in Flow-3D numerical model. Cells are the smallest part of the mesh, in which flow characteristics such as air concentration, velocity and dynamic pressure are calculated. The accuracy of the results and simulation time depends directly on the mesh block size so the cell size is very important. Orthogonal mesh was used in cartesian coordinate systems. A smaller cell size provides more accuracy for results, so we reduced the number of cells whilst including enough accuracy. In this study, the size of cells in x, y and z directions was selected as 0.015 m after several trials.

Figure 3 shows the 3D computational domain model 50–18.6 slope change, that is 6.0 m length, 0.50 m width and 4.23 m height. The 3D model of the computational domain model 50–30 slope changes this to 6.0 m length, 0.50 m width and 5.068 m height and the size of meshes in x, y, and z directions are 0.015 m. For the 50–18.6 slope change model: both total number of active and passive cells = 4,009,952, total number of active cells = 3,352,307, include real cells (used for solving the flow equations) = 3,316,269, open real cells = 3,316,269, fully blocked real cells equal to zero, external boundary cells were 36,038, inter-block boundary cells = 0 (Flow-3D report). For 50–30 slope change model: both total number of active and passive cells = 4,760,002, total number of active cells equal to 4,272,109, including real cells (used for solving the flow equations) were 3,990,878, open real cells = 3,990,878 fully blocked real cells = zero, external boundary cells were 281,231, inter-block boundary cells = 0 (Flow-3D report).

Figure 3VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

The 3D computational domain model (50–18.6) slope change, and boundary condition for (50–30 slope change) model.

When solving the Navier-Stokes equation and continuous equations, boundary conditions should be applied. The most important work of boundary conditions is to create flow conditions similar to physical status. The Flow-3D software has many types of boundary condition; each type can be used for the specific condition of the models. The boundary conditions in Flow-3D are symmetry, continuative, specific pressure, grid overlay, wave, wall, periodic, specific velocity, outflow, and volume flow rate.

There are two options to input finite flow rate in the Flow-3D software either for inlet discharge of the system or for the outlet discharge of the domain: specified velocity and volume flow rate. In this research, the X-minimum boundary condition, volume flow rate, has been chosen. For X-maximum boundary condition, outflow was selected because there is nothing to be calculated at the end of the flume. The volume flow rate and the elevation of surface water was set for Q = 0.1 and 0.235 m³/s respectively (Figure 2).

The bottom (Z-min) is prepared as a wall boundary condition and the top (Z-max) is computed as a pressure boundary condition, and for both (Y-min) and (Y-max) as symmetry.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: Listen

The air concentration distribution profiles in two models of stepped spillway were obtained at an acquisition time equal to 25 seconds in skimming flow for both upstream and downstream of a slope change 50°–18.6° and 50°–30° for different discharge as in Table 2, and as shown in Figure 4 for 50°–18.6° slope change and Figure 5 for 50°–30° slope change configuration for dc/h = 4.6. The simulation results of the air concentration are very close to the experimental results in all curves and fairly close to that predicted by the advection-diffusion model for the air bubbles suggested by Chanson (1997) on a constant sloping chute.

Figure 4VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Experimental and simulated air concentration distribution for steps number −5, +1, +5, +8, +11 and +15 along the 50°–18.6° slope change for dc/h = 4.6.

Figure 5VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Experimental and simulated air concentration distribution for steps number −5, +1, +5, +11, +19 and +22 along the 50°–30° slope change, for dc/h = 4.6.

Figure 6VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Figure 6 Experimental and simulated dimensionless velocity distribution for steps number −5, −1, +1, +5, +8, +11 and +15 along the 50°–18.6° slope change for dc/h = 2.6.

Experimental and simulated dimensionless velocity distribution for steps number −5, −1, +1, +5, +8, +11 and +15 along the 50°–18.6° slope change for dc/h = 2.6.

Figure 7 Experimental and simulated dimensionless velocity distribution for steps number −5, −1, +1, +5. +11, +15 and +22 along the 50°–30° slope change for dc/h = 2.6.

Figure 7VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Experimental and simulated dimensionless velocity distribution for steps number −5, −1, +1, +5. +11, +15 and +22 along the 50°–30° slope change for dc/h = 2.6.

But as is shown in all above mentioned figures it is clear that at the pseudo-bottom the CFD results of air concentration are less than experimental ones until the depth of water reaches a quarter of the total depth of water. Also the direction of the curves are parallel to each other when going up towards the surface water and are incorporated approximately near the surface water. For all curves, the cross-section is separate between upstream and downstream steps. Therefore the (-) sign for steps represents a step upstream of the slope change cross-section and the (+) sign represents a step downstream of the slope change cross-section.

The dimensionless velocity distribution (V/V₉₀) profile was acquired at an acquisition time equal to 25 seconds in skimming flow of the upstream and downstream slope change for both 50°–18.6° and 50°–30° slope change. The simulation results are compared with the experimental ones showing that for all curves there is close similarity for each point between the observed and experimental results. The curves increase parallel to each other and they merge near at the surface water as shown in Figure 6 for slope change 50°–18.6° configuration and Figure 7 for slope change 50°–30° configuration. However, at step numbers +1 and +5 in Figure 7 there are few differences between the simulated and observed results, namely the simulation curves ascend regularly meaning the velocity increases regularly from the pseudo-bottom up to the surface water.

Figure 8 (50°–18.6° slope change) and Figure 9 (50°–30° slope change) compare the simulation results and the experimental results for the presented dimensionless dynamic pressure distribution for different points on the stepped spillway. The results show a good agreement with the experimental and numerical simulations in all curves. For some points, few discrepancies can be noted in pressure magnitudes between the simulated and the observed ones, but they are in the acceptable range. Although the experimental data do not completely agree with the simulated results, there is an overall agreement.

Figure 8 Comparison between simulated and experimental results for the dimensionless pressure for steps number −1, −2, −3 and +1, +2 +3 and +20 on the horizontal step faces of 50°–18.6° slope change configuration, for dc/h = 4.6, x is the distance from the step edge.

Figure 8VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison between simulated and experimental results for the dimensionless pressure for steps number −1, −2, −3 and +1, +2 +3 and +20 on the horizontal step faces of 50°–18.6° slope change configuration, for dc/h = 4.6, x is the distance from the step edge.

Figure 9 Comparison between simulated and experimental results for the dimensionless pressure for steps number −1, −2, −3 and +1, +2 and +30, +31 on the horizontal step face of 50°–30° slope change configuration, for dc/h = 4.6, x is the distance from the step edge.

Figure 9VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison between simulated and experimental results for the dimensionless pressure for steps number −1, −2, −3 and +1, +2 and +30, +31 on the horizontal step face of 50°–30° slope change configuration, for dc/h = 4.6, x is the distance from the step edge.

The pressure profiles were acquired at an acquisition time equal to 70 seconds in skimming flow on 50°–18.6°, where p is the measured dynamic pressure, h is step height and ϒ is water specific weight. A negative sign for steps represents a step upstream of the slope change cross-section and a positive sign represents a step downstream of the slope change cross-section.

Figure 10 shows the experimental streamwise development of dimensionless pressure on the 50°–18.6° slope change for dc/h = 4.6, x/l = 0.35 on 50° sloping chute and x/l = 0.3 on 18.6° sloping chute compared with the numerical simulation. It is obvious from Figure 10 that the streamwise development of dimensionless pressure before slope change (steps number −1, −2 and −3) both of the experimental and simulated results are close to each other. However, it is clear that there is a little difference between the results of the streamwise development of dimensionless pressure at step numbers +1, +2 and +3. Moreover, from step number +3 to the end, the curves get close to each other.

Figure 10 Comparison between experimental and simulated results for the streamwise development of the dimensionless pressure on the 50°–18.6° slope change, for dc/h = 4.6, and x/l = 0.35 on 50° sloping chute and x/l = 0.3 on 18.6° sloping chute.

Figure 10VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison between experimental and simulated results for the streamwise development of the dimensionless pressure on the 50°–18.6° slope change, for dc/h = 4.6, and x/l = 0.35 on 50° sloping chute and x/l = 0.3 on 18.6° sloping chute.

Figure 11 compares the experimental and the numerical results for the streamwise development of the dimensionless pressure on the 50°–30° slope change, for dc/h = 4.6, and x/l = 0.35 on 50° sloping chute and x/l = 0.17 on 30° sloping chute. It is apparent that the outcomes of the experimental work are close to the numerical results, however, the results of the simulation are above the experimental ones before the slope change, but the results of the simulation descend below the experimental ones after the slope change till the end.

Figure 11 Comparison between experimental and simulated results for the streamwise development of the dimensionless pressure on the 50°–30° slope change, for dc/h = 4.6, and x/l = 0.35 on 50° sloping chute and x/l = 0.17 on 30° sloping chute.

Figure 11VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison between experimental and simulated results for the streamwise development of the dimensionless pressure on the 50°–30° slope change, for dc/h = 4.6, and x/l = 0.35 on 50° sloping chute and x/l = 0.17 on 30° sloping chute.

CONCLUSION

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: Listen

In this research, numerical modelling was attempted to investigate the effect of abrupt slope change on the flow properties (air entrainment, velocity distribution and dynamic pressure) over a stepped spillway with two different models and various flow rates in a skimming flow regime by using the CFD technique. The numerical model was verified and compared with the experimental results of Ostad Mirza (2016). The same domain of the numerical model was inputted as in experimental models to reduce errors as much as possible.

Flow-3D is a well modelled tool that deals with particles. In this research, the model deals well with air entrainment particles by observing their results with experimental results. And the reason for the small difference between the numerical and the experimental results is that the program deals with particles more accurately than the laboratory. In general, both numerical and experimental results showed that near to the slope change the flow bulking, air entrainment, velocity distribution and dynamic pressure are greatly affected by abrupt slope change on the steps. Although the extent of the slope change was relatively small, the influence of the slope change was major on flow characteristics.

The Renormalized Group (RNG) model was selected as a turbulence solver. For 3D modelling, orthogonal mesh was used as a computational domain and the mesh grid size used for X, Y, and Z direction was equal to 0.015 m. In CFD modelling, air concentration and velocity distribution were recorded for a period of 25 seconds, but dynamic pressure was recorded for a period of 70 seconds. The results showed that there is a good agreement between the numerical and the physical models. So, it can be concluded that the proposed CFD model is very suitable for use in simulating and analysing the design of hydraulic structures.

이 연구에서 수치 모델링은 두 가지 다른 모델과 다양한 유속을 사용하여 스키밍 흐름 영역에서 계단식 배수로에 대한 유동 특성 (공기 혼입, 속도 분포 및 동적 압력)에 대한 급격한 경사 변화의 영향을 조사하기 위해 시도되었습니다. CFD 기술. 수치 모델을 검증하여 Ostad Mirza (2016)의 실험 결과와 비교 하였다. 오차를 최대한 줄이기 위해 실험 모형과 동일한 수치 모형을 입력 하였다.

Flow-3D는 파티클을 다루는 잘 모델링 된 도구입니다. 이 연구에서 모델은 실험 결과를 통해 결과를 관찰하여 공기 혼입 입자를 잘 처리합니다. 그리고 수치와 실험 결과의 차이가 작은 이유는 프로그램이 실험실보다 입자를 더 정확하게 다루기 때문입니다. 일반적으로 수치 및 실험 결과는 경사에 가까워지면 유동 벌킹, 공기 혼입, 속도 분포 및 동적 압력이 계단의 급격한 경사 변화에 크게 영향을받는 것으로 나타났습니다. 사면 변화의 정도는 상대적으로 작았지만 사면 변화의 영향은 유동 특성에 큰 영향을 미쳤다.

Renormalized Group (RNG) 모델이 난류 솔버로 선택되었습니다. 3D 모델링의 경우 계산 영역으로 직교 메쉬가 사용되었으며 X, Y, Z 방향에 사용 된 메쉬 그리드 크기는 0.015m입니다. CFD 모델링에서 공기 농도와 속도 분포는 25 초 동안 기록되었지만 동적 압력은 70 초 동안 기록되었습니다. 결과는 수치 모델과 물리적 모델간에 좋은 일치가 있음을 보여줍니다. 따라서 제안 된 CFD 모델은 수력 구조물의 설계 시뮬레이션 및 해석에 매우 적합하다는 결론을 내릴 수 있습니다.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

ListenReadSpeaker webReader: Listen

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

REFERENCES

Boes R. M. Hager W. H. 2003a Hydraulic design of stepped spillways. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (9), 671–679.
Google Scholar
Boes R. M. Hager W. H. 2003b Two-Phase flow characteristics of stepped spillways. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129 (9), 661–670.
Google Scholar
Chanson H. 1994 Hydraulics of skimming flows over stepped channels and spillways. Journal of Hydraulic Research 32 (3), 445–460.
Google Scholar
Chanson H. 1997 Air Bubble Entrainment in Free Surface Turbulent Shear Flows. Academic Press, London.
Google Scholar
Chanson H. 2002 The Hydraulics of Stepped Chutes and Spillways. Balkema, Lisse, The Netherlands.
Google Scholar
Felder S. Chanson H. 2011 Energy dissipation down a stepped spillway with nonuniform step heights. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 137 (11), 1543–1548.
Google Scholar
Flow Science, Inc. 2012 FLOW-3D v10-1 User Manual. Flow Science, Inc., Santa Fe, CA.
Ghaderi A. Daneshfaraz R. Torabi M. Abraham J. Azamathulla H. M. 2020a Experimental investigation on effective scouring parameters downstream from stepped spillways. Water Supply 20 (5), 1988–1998.
Google Scholar
Ghaderi A. Abbasi S. Abraham J. Azamathulla H. M. 2020b Efficiency of trapezoidal labyrinth shaped stepped spillways. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation 72, 101711.
Google Scholar
Gonzalez C. A. Chanson H. 2008 Turbulence and cavity recirculation in air-water skimming flows on a stepped spillway. Journal of Hydraulic Research 46 (1), 65–72.
Google Scholar
Gunal M. 1996 Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Jumps. PhD Thesis, University of Manchester, Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, UK.
Hirt C. W. Nichols B. D. 1981 Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries. Journal of Computational Physics 39 (1), 201–225.
Google Scholar
Matos J. 2000 Hydraulic design of stepped spillways over RCC dams. In: Intl Workshop on Hydraulics of Stepped Spillways (H.-E. Minor & W. Hager, eds). Balkema Publ, Zurich, pp. 187–194.
Google Scholar
Mohammad Rezapour Tabari M. Tavakoli S. 2016 Effects of stepped spillway geometry on flow pattern and energy dissipation. Arabian Journal for Science & Engineering (Springer Science & Business Media BV) 41 (4), 1215–1224.
Google Scholar
Ostad Mirza M. J. 2016 Experimental Study on the Influence of Abrupt Slope Changes on Flow Characteristics Over Stepped Spillways. Communications du Laboratoire de Constructions Hydrauliques, No. 64 (A. J. Schleiss, ed.). Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
Roshan R. Azamathulla H. M. Marosi M. Sarkardeh H. Pahlavan H. Ab Ghani A. 2010 Hydraulics of stepped spillways with different numbers of steps. Dams and Reservoirs 20 (3), 131–136.
Google Scholar
Shahheydari H. Nodoshan E. J. Barati R. Moghadam M. A. 2015 Discharge coefficient and energy dissipation over stepped spillway under skimming flow regime. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 19 (4), 1174–1182.
Google Scholar
Takahashi M. Ohtsu I. 2012 Aerated flow characteristics of skimming flow over stepped chutes. Journal of Hydraulic Research 50 (4), 427–434.
Google Scholar
Versteeg H. K. Malalasekera W. 2007 An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method. Pearson Education, Harlow.
Google Scholar
© 2021 The Authors
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY 4.0), which permits copying, adaptation and redistribution, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Full Text View

planar representation (cross-section at tank centre).

Analysis of cryogenic propellant behaviour in microgravity and low thrust environments*

미세 중력 및 저 추력 환경에서 극저온 추진체 거동 분석

M.F. Fisher, G.R. Schmidt and J.J. Martin
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL 35824, USA

Abstract

우주선 비행 작업 (예 : 엔진 재시동 및 유체 전달) 중 극저온 추진제의 동작과 반응을 이해하는 것은 추진체 설계에서 매우 중요한 측면입니다. 엔진 연소 전 적절한 안정과 임무의 모든 단계에서 효과적인 차량 제어를 보장하려면 유체 움직임 및 슬로시 증폭에 대한 정확한 예측이 필요합니다.

이러한 유형의 분석을 강화하기 위해 Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)는 최근 Flow Sciences Inc에서 개발 한 CFD 패키지인 FLOW-3D를 인수했습니다. 이 문서에서는 FLOW-3D 모델 예측을 MSFC 드롭 타워 테스트 데이터와 비교한 최근 검증에 대해 설명합니다. 테스트는 원래 Saturn S-IVB 단계 액체 수소 (LH 2) 탱크의 설계 및 성능 평가를 지원하기 위해 1960 년대에 수행되었지만, 데이터는 FLOW-3D 모델의 정확성을 검증하는데 유용한 것으로 입증되었습니다.

Understanding the behaviour and response of cryogenic propellants during spacecraft flight operations (e.g., engine restart and fluid transfer) is an extremely important aspect of vehicle design. Accurate predictions of fluid motion and slosh amplification are needed to ensure proper settling prior to engine burn and effective vehicle control throughout all phases of the mission. To augment analyses of this type, Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) recently acquired FLOW-3D, a CFD package developed by Flow Sciences Inc. This paper describes a recent validation in which FLOW-3D model predictions were compared with MSFC drop tower test data. Although the tests were originally conducted in the 1960s to support design and performance assessments of the Saturn S-IVB stage liquid hydrogen (LH 2) tank, the data have proven useful for verifying the accuracy of the FLOW3D model.

Keywords: space cryogenics; propellants; microgravity

원문 바로 가기

Figure 1. Sketch map of the port Laozi on Lake Hongze

FLOW-3D software for substantiation the layout of the port water area

항구 수역의 레이아웃을 입증하기 위한 FLOW-3D 소프트웨어

B Pan1

and N Belyaev2
1 Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia
pan3.b@edu.spbstu.ru

Abstract

방파제 설계시 항만 내 수역 및 접안 시설에서 중대한 파도 발생을 배제 할 필요가 있다. 이 기사는 항구 지역의 물 이동 계산 결과를 제시합니다. 항구 입구의 위치와 주어진 물체의 크기에 대한 가장 안전한 옵션이 확인되었습니다. FLOW – 3D 프로그램을 사용하여 항구 수역의 예비 배치 단계에서 계획되고 건설적인 솔루션을 선택할 가능성이 입증되었습니다.

Introduction

항구를 설계 할 때 계류선의 가장 합리적인 구성과 항구 수역의 레이아웃을 선택하여 항구의 영토를 배치하는 것이 필요합니다. 러시아 연방의 항구 수역 배치는 항구 수역 요소에 대한 사양을 포함하는 해로, 페어웨이 및 기동 구역에 대한 설계 표준의 요구 사항에 따라 수행됩니다 [1, 2].

항구 물은 파도, 퇴적물 축적 및 얼음으로부터 보호되어야 합니다. 항구 계획을 작성할 때, 선박의 기동 및 연안 계류 중뿐만 아니라 선적 및 하역 및 기타 항구 운영 중에 선박 계류에 대한 정상적인 조건이 생성되도록 파도로부터 수역을 보호하는 정도를 제공해야 합니다.

설계 결정은 새로운 포트를 설계하거나 기존 포트를 개발할 때 물리적 또는 수학적 모델링을 기반으로 합니다 [2]. 항구 수역에서 계산 된 물 흐름의 매개 변수는 수문 기상 조사, 장기 현장 관찰 및 실험실 연구의 결과를 기반으로 하도록 권장됩니다.

공학 수문 기상 측량 데이터가 불충분하면 계산 방법을 기반으로 설계 폭풍의 파도 매개 변수를 결정할 수 있습니다. 사용된 계산 방법이 국제 실무에서 동일한 목적으로 채택된 방법 (모델)에 부합하는지 표시하는 것이 좋습니다 [3].

Figure 2. The location of the port entrance on Lake Hongze: a – variant 1; b – variant 2; c – variants 3-5

Figure 4. Modeling of variant 1 with the movement of waves in the port water area

Figure 5. Modeling of variant 2: a is prevailing movement of water towards the enclosed water area; b is prevailing reverse movement of water

Figure 9. Plan of the port water area with design points

Figure 10. Change in water depth at point A: a – variant 1; b – variant 2

Figure 11. Change in water depth at point A: a – variant 3; b – variant 4; c – variant 5

Figure 12. Change in water depth at points A (a) and C (b) for variant 3

Figure 13. Change in water depth at points A (a) and B (b) for variant 3

Figure 14. Scheme of vessel traffic: a – variant 3; b – variant 4

References
[1] SP 350.1326000.2018. 2018 Norms for technological design of sea ports (Moscow:
Standartinform) p 226
[2] SP 444.1326000.2019. 2019 Standards for the design of sea channels, fairways and
maneuvering areas (Moscow: Standartinform) p 62
[3] SP 38.13330.2012. 2014 Loads and impacts on Hydraulic structures (from wave, ice and ships)
(Moscow: Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation) p 112
[4] Rijnsdorp D P Smit P B and Zijlema M 2012 Non-hydrostatic modelling of infragravity waves
using SWASH. Proceedings of 33rd Conference on Coastal Engineering. pp 1287–1299
[5] Kantardgi I G Zheleznyak M J 2016 Laboratory and numerical study of waves in the port area.
Magazine of Civil Engineering No 6 pp 49–59 DOI: 10.5862/MCE.66.5
[6] Zheleznyak M J Kantardgi I G Sorokin M S and Polyakov A I 2015 Resonance properties of
seaport water areas Magazine of Civil Engineering № 5(57) pp 3-19 DOI:10.5862/MCE.57.1
[7] Kantarzhi I Zuev N Shunko N 2014 Numerical and physical modelling of the waves inside the
new marina in Gelendjik (Black Sea) Application of physical modelling to port and coastal
protection. Proceedings of 5th international conference Coastlab (Varna) Vol 2 pp 253–262
[8] Makarov K N and Chebotarev A G 2015 Breakwater placement at the root of a seawall
Magazine of Civil Engineering № 3(55) pp 67-78 DOI: 10.5862/MCE.55.8
[9] Belyaev N D Lebedev V V and Alexeeva A V 2017 Investigation of the soil structure changes
under the tsunami waves impact on the marine hydrotechnical structures V 10 № 4 pp 44-52
DOI: 10.7868/S2073667317040049
[10] Lebedev V V Nudner I S and Belyaev N D 2018 The formation of the seabed surface relief near
the gravitational object Magazine of Civil Engineering No 79(3) pp 120–131 DOI:
10.18720/MCE.79.13
[11] Kofoed-Hansen H Sloth P Sørensen O R Fuchs J 2000 Combined numerical and physical
modelling of seiching in exposed new marina Proceedings of 27th international conference of
coastal engineering pp 3600–3614
[12] Smit P Stelling G and Zijlema M 2011 Assessment of nonhydrostatic wave-flow model
SWASH for directionally spread waves propagating through a barred basin Proceedings of
ACOMEN 2011 pp 1–10
[13] Zijlema M Stelling G Smit P 2011 SWASH: An operational public domain code for simulating
wave fields and rapidly varied flows in coastal waters. Coastal Engineering. № 10(58). pp 992–
1012
[14] FLOW-3D® 2008 User’s Manual Version 9.3 Flow Science Inc p 821
[15] Pan Bayan and Belyaev N D 2019 Week of Science SPbPU: Proceedings of an international
scientific conference The best reports. pp 3-7
[16] Girgidov A A 2011 Hybrid simulation in hydrotechnical facilities design and FLOW-3D as a
tool its realization Magazine of Civil Engineering №3 pp 21-27
[17] Girgidov A A 2010 Proceeding of the VNIIG vol 260. pp 12-19

[18] Vasquez J A Walsh B W 2009 CFD simulation of local scour in complex piers under tidal flow,
33rd IAHR Congress: Water Engineering for a Sustainable Environment, © 2009 by
International Association of Hydraulic Engineering & Research (IAHR) ISBN: 978-94-90365-
01-1.
[19] Shan-Hwei Ou Tai-Wen Hsu and Jian-Feng Lin 2010 Experimental and Numerical Studies on
Wave Transformation over Artificial Reefs Proceedings of the International Conference on
Coastal Engineering (Shanghai, China) No 32
[20] Hirt C and Nichols B 1980 Volume of Fluid Method for the Dynamics of Free Boundaries
Journal Comp. Phys 39 p 201.

논문 원문 바로가기

Numerical Simulation Analysis of Liquid Transportation in Capsule-type Vane Tank under Microgravity

Microgravity 하에서 캡슐형 베인 탱크의 액체 수송에 대한 수치 시뮬레이션 분석

Abstract

Li Yong-Qiang1,2 & Dong Jun-Yan1 & Rui Wei
1Received: 17 June 2019 /Accepted: 4 December 2019
#Springer Nature B.V. 2020

In order to research the influence of the guide vane on liquid transmission performance in a tank under microgravity, simulation analysis was carried out with FLOW-3D software. Firstly, it compared the working condition under the charging rate of 10% with the corresponding experiment results of the drop tower and validated the correctness of the simulation process. And then it changed the structure parameters of the guide vane, researched the influence of different quantity, gap and thickness on climbing rate of liquid, and analyzed the causing reasons of these effects in-depth. This paper provided a reference for the design of internal guiding vane of microgravity tank.

본 논문은 가이드 베인이 미세 중력 상태의 탱크에서 액체 전달 성능에 미치는 영향을 연구하기 위해 FLOW-3D 소프트웨어를 사용하여 시뮬레이션 분석을 수행했습니다. 첫째, 10 % 충전율 하에서 작업 조건을 드롭 타워의 해당 실험 결과와 비교하여 시뮬레이션 프로세스의 정확성을 검증했다. 그리고 가이드 베인의 구조 매개 변수를 변경하고, 액체의 상승 속도에 대한 양, 간격 및 두께의 영향을 연구하고 이러한 영향의 원인을 심도있게 분석했습니다. 이 논문은 미세 중력 탱크의 내부 안내 날개 설계에 대한 참고 자료를 제공했습니다.

The relationship curve between the square of climbing height and time with a = 6 mm

The relationship curve between the vane’s liquid transportation and time under different width a

논문 바로 가기

Figure 1. Geometries and bed topography settings of the nine computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations with channel curvature (C) changed from 0.77 to 0

The Straightening of a River Meander Leads to Extensive Losses in Flow Complexity and Ecosystem Services

Abstract

하천 복원 노력을 지원하기 위해 우리는 하천 파괴 속도를 늦출 필요가 있습니다. 이 연구는 하천 곡률 보호를 위해 구불 구불 한 하천이 곧게 펴질 때 수리적 복잡성 손실에 대한 자세한 설명을 제공합니다.

전산 유체 역학 (CFD) 모델링을 사용하여 채널 곡률 (C)이 잘 확립된 사행 굽힘 (C = 0.77)에서 곡률이 없는 직선 채널 (C = 0)로 저하되는 9 개의 시뮬레이션에서 유동 역학의 차이를 문서화했습니다.

공변량을 제어하고 수리적 복잡성에 대한 손실률을 늦추기 위해 각 9 개 채널 구현은 동등한 베드 형태 지형을 가졌습니다. 분석된 수력학적 변수에는 흐름 표면 고도, 흐름 방향 및 횡단 단위 배출, 흐름 방향, 가로 방향 및 수직 방향의 유속, 베드 전단 응력, 흐름 함수 및 채널 베드에서의 수직 저 유량 유속 비율이 포함되었습니다.

수력 복잡성의 손실은 처음에 수로를 C = 0.77에서 C = 0.33 (즉, 수로의 반경이 수로 폭의 3 배임) 할 때 점차적으로 발생했으며, 추가 직선화는 수력 복잡성에 대한 급속한 손실을 초래했습니다.

다른 연구에서는 수리적 복잡성이 중요한 하천 서식지를 제공하고 생물 다양성과 양의 상관 관계가 있음을 보여주었습니다. 이 연구는 강을 풀 때 수력학적 복잡성이 점진적으로 사라졌다가 빠르게 사라지는 방법을 보여줍니다.

To assist river restoration efforts we need to slow the rate of river degradation. This study provides a detailed explanation of the hydraulic complexity loss when a meandering river is straightened in order to motivate the protection of river channel curvature. We used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling to document the difference in flow dynamics in nine simulations with channel curvature (C) degrading from a well-established tight meander bend (C = 0.77) to a straight channel without curvature (C = 0). To control for covariates and slow the rate of loss to hydraulic complexity, each of the nine-channel realizations had equivalent bedform topography. The analyzed hydraulic variables included the flow surface elevation, streamwise and transverse unit discharge, flow velocity at streamwise, transverse, and vertical directions, bed shear stress, stream function, and the vertical hyporheic flux rates at the channel bed. The loss of hydraulic complexity occurred gradually when initially straightening the channel from C = 0.77 to C = 0.33 (i.e., the radius of the channel is three-times the channel width), and additional straightening incurred rapid losses to hydraulic complexity. Other studies have shown hydraulic complexity provides important riverine habitat and is positively correlated with biodiversity. This study demonstrates how hydraulic complexity can be gradually and then rapidly lost when unwinding a river, and hopefully will serve as a cautionary tale.

Figure 2. Flow surface elevation (h) normalized by H at C = 0.77, C = 0.33, and C = 0 conditions. n denotes the lateral coordination with n = 0 at channel center and B denotes the channel width.

Figure 3. Normalized flow surface profiles for the nine simulations at the point bar apex 1.5 s/B. The insert plot shows the second order derivative of normalized flow surface elevation in the transverse direction, Fh00(n/B), which gives the convexity or concavity of the surface profile curves.

Figure 4. Streamwise unit discharge qs/UH for channel curvature C = 0.77, 0.33, and 0 conditions.

Figure 5. Transverse unit discharge qn/UH for channel curvature C = 0.77, 0.33, and 0 conditions.

Reference : https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/12/6/1680

Figure 9. Distribution of river channel bed shear Cf for channel curvature C = 0.77, 0.33, and 0 conditions.

Figure 10. Normalized vertical hyporheic flux vzbed/U at 2 mm below sediment surface for channel curvature C = 0.77, 0.33, and 0 conditions. Positive indicates upwelling of groundwater into the river channel.

Figure 12. Transverse stream function distribution ψ/UBH reveals the secondary circulation of transverse flow cells rotating at the meander apex 1.5 s/B for channel curvature C = 0.77 (A), C = 0.33 (B), and C = 0 (C), with positive values representing clockwise rotation direction when facing upstream, and negative values representing counter-clockwise rotation when facing upstream.

References

Paper 422-H); U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1966.
Leopold, L.B.; Wolman, M.G. River meanders. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 1960, 71, 769–793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Wohl, E. Rivers in the Landscape; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
Dietrich, W.E.; Smith, J.D. Influence of the point bar on flow through curved channels. Water Resour. Res. 1983, 19, 1173–1192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Harvey, J.W.; Bencala, K. The effects of streambed topography on surface-subsurface water exchange in mountains catchments. Water Resour. Res. 1993, 29, 89–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Bridge, J.S. Rivers and Floodplains: Forms, Processes, and Sedimentary Record; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
Schumm, S.A. Patterns of alluvial rivers. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 1985, 13, 5–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Vermeulen, B.; Hoitink, A.J.F.; Labeur, R.J. Flow structure caused by a local cross-sectional area increase and curvature in a sharp river bend. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 2015, 120, 1771–1783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Konsoer, K.M.; Rhoads, B.L.; Best, J.L.; Langendoen, E.J.; Abad, J.D.; Parsons, D.R.; Garcia, M.H. Three-dimensional flow structure and bed morphology in large elongate meander loops with different outer bank roughness characteristics. Water Resour. Res. 2016, 52, 9621–9641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Li, B.D.; Zhang, X.H.; Tang, H.S.; Tsubaki, R. Influence of deflection angles on flow behaviours in openchannel bends. J. Mt. Sci. 2018, 15, 2292–2306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Gualtieri, C.; Abdi, R.; Ianniruberto, M.; Filizola, N.; Endreny, T.A. A 3D analysis of spatial habitat metrics about the confluence of Negro and Solimões rivers, Brazil. Ecohydrology 2020, 13, e2166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Gualtieri, C.; Ianniruberto, M.; Filizola, N.; Santos, R.; Endreny, T. Hydraulic complexity at a large river confluence in the Amazon basin. Ecohydrology 2017, 10, e1863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Kozarek, J.; Hession, W.; Dolloff, C.; Diplas, P. Hydraulic complexity metrics for evaluating in-stream brook trout habitat. J. Hydraul. Eng. 2010, 136, 1067–1076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
McCoy, E.D.; Bell, S.S.; Mushinsky, H.R. Habitat structure: Synthesis and perspectives. In Habitat Structure; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 1991; pp. 427–430. [Google Scholar]
Re-Engineering Britain’s Rivers. The Economist. 6 March 2020. Available online: https://www.latestnigeriannews.com/news/8279579/reengineering-britains-rivers.html (accessed on 12 April 2020).
Palmer, M.A.; Bernhardt, E.; Allan, J.; Lake, P.S.; Alexander, G.; Brooks, S.; Carr, J.; Clayton, S.; Dahm, C.; Follstad Shah, J.; et al. Standards for ecologically successful river restoration. J. Appl. Ecol. 2005, 42, 208–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Abad, J.D.; Rhoads, B.L.; Güneralp, İ.; García, M.H. Flow structure at different stages in a meander-bend with bendway weirs. J. Hydraul. Eng. 2008, 134, 1052–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Blanckaert, K.; Schnauder, I.; Sukhodolov, A.; van Balen, W.; Uijttewaal, W. Meandering: Field Experiments, Laboratory Experiments and Numerical Modeling. Technical Report. 2009. Available online: https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/146621/files/2009-695-Blanckaert_et_al-Meandering_field_experiments_laboratory_experiments_and_numerical.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2020).
Constantinescu, G.; Koken, M.; Zeng, J. The structure of turbulent flow in an open channel bend of strong curvature with deformed bed: Insight provided by detached eddy simulation. Water Resour. Res. 2011, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sawyer, A.H.; Bayani Cardenas, M.; Buttles, J. Hyporheic exchange due to channel-spanning logs. Water Resour. Res. 2011, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Zhou, T.; Endreny, T. Meander hydrodynamics initiated by river restoration deflectors. Hydrol. Process. 2012, 26, 3378–3392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Hirt, C.W.; Nichols, B.D. Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries. J. Comput. Phys. 1981, 39, 201–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Van Balen, W.; Uijttewaal, W.; Blanckaert, K. Large-eddy simulation of a curved open-channel flow over topography. Phys. Fluids 2010, 22, 075108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Blanckaert, K. Topographic steering, flow recirculation, velocity redistribution, and bed topography in sharp meander bends. Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Zeng, J.; Constantinescu, G.; Blanckaert, K.; Weber, L. Flow and bathymetry in sharp open-channel bends: Experiments and predictions. Water Resour. Res. 2008, 44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Elliott, A.H.; Brooks, N.H. Transfer of nonsorbing solutes to a streambed with bed forms: Laboratory experiments. Water Resour. Res. 1997, 33, 137–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Zhou, T.; Endreny, T.A. Reshaping of the hyporheic zone beneath river restoration structures: Flume and hydrodynamic experiments. Water Resour. Res. 2013, 49, 5009–5020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Lane, S.; Bradbrook, K.; Richards, K.; Biron, P.; Roy, A. The application of computational fluid dynamics to natural river channels: Three-dimensional versus two-dimensional approaches. Geomorphology 1999, 29, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Vardy, A. Fluid Principles; McGraw-Hill International Series in Civil Engineering; McGraw-Hill: London, UK, 1990. [Google Scholar]
Rozovskii, I.L. Flow of Water in Bends of Open Channels; Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR: Kiev, Ukraine, 1957. [Google Scholar]
Blanckaert, K.; De Vriend, H.J. Secondary flow in sharp open-channel bends. J. Fluid Mech. 2004, 498, 353–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Johannesson, H.; Parker, G. Linear theory of river meanders. River Meand. 1989, 12, 181–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Camporeale, C.; Perona, P.; Porporato, A.; Ridolfi, L. Hierarchy of models for meandering rivers and related morphodynamic processes. Rev. Geophys. 2007, 45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
He, L. Distribution of primary and secondary currents in sine-generated bends. Water SA 2018, 44, 118–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Liao, J.C.; Beal, D.N.; Lauder, G.V.; Triantafyllou, M.S. Fish exploiting vortices decrease muscle activity. Science 2003, 302, 1566–1569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Crispell, J.K.; Endreny, T.A. Hyporheic exchange flow around constructed in-channel structures and implications for restoration design. Hydrol. Process. 2009, 1168, 1158–1168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Hester, E.T.; Gooseff, M.N. Moving Beyond the Banks: Hyporheic Restoration Is Fundamental to Restoring Ecological Services and Functions of Streams. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 1521–1525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

논문 원문 바로가기

FIGURE 1. - FLOW-3D MODEL OF K-SITE TANK PRESSUR-IZATION.

Prediction of the Ullage Gas Thermal Stratification in a NASP Vehicle Propellant Tank Experimental Simulation Using FLOW-3D

FLOW-3D를 사용한 NASP 차량 추진 탱크 실험 시뮬레이션에서 Ullage 가스 열 층화 예측

Personal Author

Hardy, T. L.; Tomsik, T. M.

NASP (National Aero-Space Plane) 프로젝트의 일환으로 2D 온도 프로파일에 대한 중력, 초기 탱크 압력, 초기 유면 온도 및 열 전달 속도의 다차원 효과를 연구했습니다.

상업용 유한 차분 유체 흐름 모델인 FLOW-3D가 평가에 사용되었습니다. 이러한 효과는 기체 수소 가압제를 사용한 이전 액체 수소 실험 데이터를 기반으로 조사되었습니다.

FLOW-3D 결과는 기존 1D 모델과 비교되었습니다. 또한 메쉬 크기와 수렴 기준이 분석 결과에 미치는 영향을 조사했습니다. NASP 탱크 모델링을위한 향후 수정 및 FLOW-3D 사용에 대한 제안도 제공됩니다.

Keywords

Aerospace planesComputer programsFluid flowHeat transferNational aerospace plane programPropellant tanksUllageComputational gridsConvergenceFinite difference theoryLiquid hydrogenMathematical modelsSimulationStratificationTemperature profiles

FIGURE 3. - EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS — FIGURE 3. – EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS

FIGURE 6.- EFFECT OF INITIAL PRESSURE ON VELOCITY PROFILE

FIGURE 10. - EFFECT OF INITIAL TEMPERATURE ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS — FIGURE 10. – EFFECT OF INITIAL TEMPERATURE ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS

FIGURE 13. - EFFECT OF HEAT TRANSFER ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS — FIGURE 13. – EFFECT OF HEAT TRANSFER ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS

FIGURE 16. - EFFECT OF CONVERGENCE CRITERIA ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS, 55 PERCENT ULLAGE, Pi = 17.4 PSI, 6 = 32.2 FT/SECZ, 24 SEC PRESSURIZATION — FIGURE 16. – EFFECT OF CONVERGENCE CRITERIA ON TEMPERATURE CONTOURS, 55 PERCENT ULLAGE, Pi = 17.4 PSI, 6 = 32.2 FT/SECZ, 24 SEC PRESSURIZATION

FIGURE 17. - COMPAR ISON OF CENTERLINE TEMPERATURES USING VARIOUS CONVERGENCE CRITERIA, 55 PERCENT ULLAGE, G = 32,2 FT/SEC2, P;= 17.4 PSI, 24 SEC PRESSURIZATION. — FIGURE 17. – COMPAR ISON OF CENTERLINE TEMPERATURES USING VARIOUS CONVERGENCE CRITERIA, 55 PERCENT ULLAGE, G = 32,2 FT/SEC2, P;= 17.4 PSI, 24 SEC PRESSURIZATION.

FIGURE 19. – EFFECT OF CONVERGENCE CRITERIA ON VELOCITY PROFILE,

FIGURE 21. - EFFECT OF MESH SIZE ON TEMPERA- TURE CONTOURS, 55 PERCENT ULLAGE, Pi = 17.4 PSI, G = 0.0 FT/SEC2, , e = . 02, dt = , 005 SEC, 24 SEC PRESSURIZATION. — FIGURE 21. – EFFECT OF MESH SIZE ON TEMPERA- TURE CONTOURS, 55 PERCENT ULLAGE, Pi = 17.4 PSI, G = 0.0 FT/SEC2, , e = . 02, dt = , 005 SEC, 24 SEC PRESSURIZATION.

논문 원문 바로가기

Figure 5.6 Experimental set-up equipped with high-speed camera system

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMIC MODELLING OF LASER ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND EFFECT OF GRAVITY

전산 유체 역학 레이저 첨가제 모델링 제조 공정 및 중력의 영향

A thesis submitted to
The University of Manchester
For the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
In the Faculty of Science and Engineering
2017
Heng Gu
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil
Engineering

레이저 적층 제조 (LAM)는 재료를 층별로 선택적으로 추가하여 하나 또는 여러 개의 레이저 빔을 사용하여 재료를 융합하거나 응고시키는 3D 부품을 형성하는 것을 기반으로 합니다.

LAM 공정을 조사하는 데 상당한 양의 작업을 할 수 있지만 다른 재료 성장 방향에서 중력 및 동적 유체 흐름 특성의 영향에 대해서는 알려진 바가 거의 없습니다.

레이저 제조 기술의 발전과 함께 LAM은 실린더 본체, 터빈 블레이드의 표면 클래딩, 해양 드릴링 헤드, 다양한 증착 방향이 일반적으로 필요한 슬리브 및 몰드의 측벽을 비롯한 다양한 환경에서 점점 더 많이 사용되고 있습니다. 또한 공간 적층 제조의 경우 운영 환경이 매우 낮거나 무중력을 경험하게 됩니다.

LAM 프로세스를 모델링하기 위한 수치적 방법 개발에 대한 이전 연구에서 많은 노력을 기울였습니다. 그러나 이전 모델링 작업의 대부분은 자유 표면 형성을 고려하지 않고 용융 풀 역학 개발에 초점을 맞추었습니다. 몇 가지 조사에만 동적 유동 용융 풀에 대한 재료 추가 분석이 포함됩니다.

다양한 재료 증착 방향 및 무중력 효과에서 수행 할 때 모든 복잡한 기능을 사용하여 증착 프로세스를 시뮬레이션하고 중력 효과를 고려할 수 있는 모델을 개발하는 작업은 발견되지 않았습니다.

이 연구에서는 재료 추가, 표면 장력, 용융 및 응고, 중력, 온도 의존 재료 속성, 자유 표면 형성 및 이동을 포함한 복합 공정 요인을 고려한 LAM 공정을 위해 3 차원 과도 전산 유체 역학 모델이 구축되었습니다. 열원. 레이저 금속 증착 공정에 대한 더 나은 이해는 수치적으로 그리고 실험적으로 이루어졌습니다.

이 연구는 단일 레이어의 증착, 여러 인접 패스 및 돌출 된 피쳐가 있는 완전한 3 차원 형상을 다루었습니다. 증착 공정 중 다양한 증착 방향과 무중력 및 매우 낮은 중력에 대한 중력의 영향을 조사하고 그 영향을 최소화하기 위해 공정 매개 변수를 최적화 했습니다.

이 연구는 또한 층별 재료 추가를 기반으로 레이저 좁은 갭 용접 공정의 기본 현상과 용접 공정이 다른 방향으로 수행 될 때 중력이 홈 내부의 용융 풀 형성에 미치는 영향을 이해하는 데까지 확장되었습니다.

용융 풀 개발 이력 및 온도 분포를 분석하여 공정 중에 표면 장력 계수의 영향을 논의했습니다. 현재 모델의 도움으로 증착 불균일성, 증착 양단의 돌출부, 경사, 융착 부족, 계단 효과, 표면 파형, 중력 변화로 인한 붕괴 등 다양한 결함을 설명 하였습니다.

이러한 모든 결함을 제거하기 위한 해당 솔루션이 제시되었습니다. 무중력 레이저 적층 제조에 대한 연구는 이전에 보고되지 않았던 몇 가지 새로운 현상을 발견하여 우주에서 미래의 레이저 3D 프린팅을 위한 길을 닦았습니다.

Figure 2.1 Basic construction of a laser system [8]

Figure 2.3 Schematic of a diode laser system [12]

Figure 2.4 Principle of a cladding pumped fibre laser [13]

Figure 2.5 Concept of a thin disk laser [14]

Figure 2.7 Lateral powder injection [12]

Figure 2.9 Laser additive manufacturing using wire, (a) front feeding, (b) rear feeding, wire placed at (c) leading edge, (d) centre and (e) trailing edge of melt pool [23, 24]

Figure 2.20 Bead geometry at the beginning of the deposition with different surface tension gradient (a) Negative, (b) positive, (c) Mixed [85]

Figure 2.22 Simulation of humping effect in high-speed gas tungsten arc welding [91]

Figure 2.25 (a) Melt pool shape formed by Marangoni stress only, (b) Melt pool shape formed by gravity force only, (c) Melt shape formed by the combination of those two forces together [122]

Figure 2.27 Growth rate and temperature gradient on solidification boundary with different melt pool shape [120]

Figure 2.29 Two different methods to produce overhang structures[136]

Figure 2.30 Contact angle of a water droplet adhering on a glass window [142]

Figure 2.31 Stress components of a single track laser deposition (a) x-direction, (b) ydirection, (c) z-direction, (d) von Mises equivalent stress [151]

Figure 2.32 Phase fraction of martensite during laser metal deposition [160]

Figure 4.15 Development of melt pool and velocity field 0.588 s, 1.2 s, 1.896 s, 2.4 s

Figure 4.33 Two methods to print C, (A) raster (B) offset out

Figure 5.4(a) Cavitar laser illumination system (b) High-speed camera in horizontal position

Figure 5.5 Schematic diagrams of wire laser deposition process (a) flat (b) vertical

Figure 5.7 2-layer deposition result and cross-section (a) top view, (b) experimental cross section, (c) cross-section of modelling result

Figure 5.13 Temperature and melt pool-velocity field history for case 8, (a&f:0.36 s, b&g:1.44 s, c&h:1.80 s, d&i:1.908 s, e&j:2.196 s)

Figure 5.16 Comparison of melt pool evolution for cases with big and small spot size

Figure 6.27 (a,b,c) before re-melting, (d,e,f) after re-melting

6.5 Conclusion

좁은 갭 용접 공정의 다양한 측면을 다루는 3 차원 모델이 구축되었습니다. 용접 비드와 측벽 사이의 융합 현상이 없는 것은 필러 재료와 측벽을 녹일 수 있는 충분한 에너지를 제공 할 수 없는 낮은 열 입력으로 인한 것일 수 있습니다.

증가된 레이저 출력을 적용하거나 재 용융 패스를 수행 한 후 더 나은 표면 품질을 얻을 수 있고 측벽과의 융합 부족을 제거 할 수 있습니다. 용접 비드의 모양이 볼록한 모양에서 오목한 모양으로 바뀌고 측면 벽과의 좋은 젖음이 실현 될 수 있습니다.

다양한 위치에서 좁은 틈새 용접에 대한 중력의 영향을 조사했습니다. 용융 풀 전면의 경사 모양은 중력의 영향으로 다르게 나타납니다.

반면, 홈이 없는 기판의 증착 공정과 비교할 때 대부분의 열을 전달하는데 도움이 되는 측벽의 존재로 인해 중력의 영향이 감소했습니다.

마지막 패스 중에 중력은 일부 평평하지 않은 위치에서 심각한 낙하 및 붕괴 문제를 일으킬 수 있습니다. 이것은 표면에 더 큰 용융 풀이 형성되어 중력과 표면 장력 사이의 균형이 깨졌기 때문입니다. 수직 업 위치에서 좁은 간격 용접 공정 동안 다른 중력 수준이 적용되었습니다.

용접 비드와 측벽 사이의 융합 부족은 중력 수준이 증가함에 따라 관찰 될 수 있습니다. 중력이 증가하면 용융 풀의 뒤쪽 영역으로 더 많은 액체 재료가 이동하여 더 심각한 물방울과 볼록한 모양의 용접 비드가 발생합니다.

용융 풀 개발 이력의 도움으로 용접 비드가 더 이상 그루브에 있지 않거나 측벽과의 직접적인 접촉이 적을 때 전도를 통해 더 적은 열이 방출 될 수 있기 때문에 용융 풀 부피가 크게 증가한다는 것을 알 수 있습니다.

좁은 간격 용접 공정에 대한 표면 장력 계수의 영향을 조사했습니다. 양의 표면 장력 계수를 적용하면 용접 비드가 홈 내부에서 덜 오목한 것처럼 보였고 측벽의 습윤 조건이 음의 ∂γ / ∂T 조건의 경우만큼 좋지 않았습니다.

측벽이 없으면 용접 비드는 표면의 마지막 패스 동안 음의 계수와 양의 계수 케이스 사이에 더 많은 차이를 보여줍니다. 표면 장력 계수는 홈 내부의 측벽과의 융합 상태를 결정하는 데 중요한 역할을 했습니다.

두꺼운 부분의 좁은 틈새 용접 중에 여러 번 통과하는 용접 비드 개발이 조사되었습니다. 비드 모양은 열 축적으로 인해 더 많은 패스가 증착 될수록 더 오목 해집니다. 패스 간의 융합 부족은 때때로 다음 패스의 재 용융 공정을 통해 제거 될 수 있습니다. 이종 재료를 사용한 좁은 틈새 용접 프로세스가 성공적으로 시뮬레이션되었습니다.

중심선을 따라 용융 풀과 용접 비드의 비대칭 형성은 재료 열 특성의 차이에 기인 할 수 있으며, 결과적으로 측벽과의 융합 부족을 유발할 수 있습니다.

비드 비대칭 문제는 수평 위치에서 용접 공정을 수행하거나 총 열 입력을 증가시켜 열전도율이 높은 측벽을 녹이는 방식으로 피할 수 있습니다. 재 용융 공정은 표면 품질을 향상시키고 모재와의 융착 문제를 제거하기 위해 용접된 표면에 적용 할 때 유용한 것으로 밝혀졌습니다.

논문 원문 바로가기

Numerical Modeling on Internal Solitary Wave propagation over an obstacle using Flow-3D

Keyword: Internal solitary waves, Numerical, Flow-3D, Computational Fluid Dynamics

연구자 : Yu-Ren Chen
지도교수 : Dr John R C Hsu
June 2012

기술과 수치 알고리즘의 발전으로 파도가 해양이나 항만 구조물에 미치는 영향에 대한 많은 연구가 개발되었으며,보다 정확한 결과를 얻기 위해 고효율 수치 계산 소프트웨어를 사용할 수 있습니다. 현재 내부 파 생성, 전송, 파동의 물리적 메커니즘은 국내외 해양 분야에서 중요한 연구 주제 중 하나입니다.

이 연구는 FLOW-3D 전산 유체 역학 (Computational Fluid Dynamics, CFD) 소프트웨어를 사용하여 상층의 담수와 하층의 담수를 시뮬레이션합니다. 바닷물의 밀도 계층화 유체는 중력 혼합 붕괴 방식을 사용하여 내부 파도를 생성하고 긴 경사와 같은 일반적인 장애물을 통해 파형 진화 및 유동장 분포를 탐구합니다.

짧은 플랫폼 사다리꼴 경사와 이등변 삼각형. 이 기사에서는 또한 소프트웨어 작동 설정과 FLOW-3D를 내부 파 실험에 적용하는 방법을 소개하고, 이전 실험 조건과 결과를 참조하여 내부 파 전송 과정을 시뮬레이션합니다. 시뮬레이션 결과는 실험 데이터를 확인하고 첫 번째 분석을 시뮬레이션합니다.

중력 붕괴 방식의 게이트의 개방 속도가 내부 파의 전송 시간 및 진폭에 미치는 영향; 시뮬레이션 결과는 게이트 개방 속도가 빠르고 내부 파의 진폭이 크고 전송 속도가 빠릅니다. ; 반대로 게이트 개방 속도가 느리면 내부 파의 진폭이 작고 전송 속도가 느리지 만 둘 다 비선형 비례 관계.

이 연구는 또한 다양한 장애물 (긴 기울기, 사다리꼴 기울기가있는 짧은 플랫폼, 이등변 삼각형)을 통한 내부 고독 파의 전송 과정을 시뮬레이션하고 단일 장애물을 통과하는 내부 파도의 파형 진화, 와류 및 유동장 변화를 논의합니다.

연구를 통해 우리가 매우 미세한 그리드를 사용하고 수치 시뮬레이션의 그래픽 출력을 열심히 분석 할 수 있다면 실험실 실험 관찰보다 내부 고독 파의 전송 특성을 더 잘 이해할 수 있다고 믿습니다.

요약

서로 다른 특성을 가진 두 유체의 계면에있는 파동을 계면 파라고합니다. 바다에서는 표층의 기압 변화에 의해 형성된 바람 장이 공기와 바다의 경계 파인 해면에 불어 올 때 변동을 일으킨다. 기체 또는 유체의 밀도 층화가 발생할 때 외부 힘 (예 : 바람, 압력, 파도 및 조류, 중력 등)에 의해 교란되면 내부 파도라고하는 경계면에서 변동이 발생할 수 있으므로 내부 파도가 발생할 수 있습니다. 웨이브는 밀도가 다른 층화 된 유체의 웨이브 현상입니다.

대기의 내부 파도와 같이 일상 생활에서 볼 수있는 내부 파도는 특히 오후 또는 비가 내리기 전에 깊고 얕은 altocumulus 구름 층으로 하늘에 자주 나타납니다. 대기 중의 내부 파의 움직임은 공기의 흐름에 영향을 주어 기류를 상승시키고 공기 중의 수증기가 물방울로 응축되어 구름이되도록합니다.

반대로 기류가 가라 앉으면 수증기가 응결이 쉽지 않습니다. 구름이 있어도 내부의 파도가 응결하기 어렵습니다. 소산되어 루버와 같은 altocumulus 구름을 형성합니다. 안정된 밀도와 층화 상태의 자연 수체는 외부 세계에 의해 교란 될 때 내부 파동 운동을 겪게됩니다.

예를 들어, 밀도가 안정되고 층화가 분명한 호수에서 바람 장은 수면에 파도에서 파생 된 내부 파동을 일으켜 물의 질량이 전달되고 호수 가장자리로 물이 축적되어 수위가 높아집니다. 위치 에너지를 형성하는 축적 영역; 수역이 가라 앉기 시작하면 위치 에너지를 운동 에너지로 변환하고 남미 콜롬비아의 Babine Lake의 내부 파동 거동과 같은 내부 파동 운동을 생성 할 수도 있습니다 (Farmer, 1978). ). 염분, 밀도 또는 온도가 안정된 바다에서는 조수와 지형의 영향으로 수역이 행성의 중력에 따라 움직입니다.

격렬한 기복이있는 지형을 통과 할 때 내부 파동이 발생합니다. ; 중국 해에서 발견되는 남쪽 내부 파도에서와 같이 (Hsu et al., 2000). 파동은 심해에서 얕은 물로 전달되며, 얕아 짐, 깨짐, 혼합, 소용돌이, 굴절, 회절 및 반사가있을 것입니다. 내부 파 전달은 일종의 파동이기 때문에 위에서 언급 한 파동 특성도 갖습니다.

해양 내부 파도는 길이가 수백 미터에서 수십 킬로미터에 이르는 광범위한 파장을 가지고 있으며,주기는 몇 분 정도 빠르며 수십 시간 정도 느리며 진폭은 몇 미터에서 수백 미터. 해양 내부 파도가 움직일 때 층화 위와 아래의 물 흐름 방향이 반대가되어 현재 전단 작용으로 인해 층화 경계면에서 큰 비틀림 힘이 발생합니다.

바다에 기초 말뚝과 같은 구조물이있는 경우 석유 시추 플랫폼의 고정 케이블은 큰 비틀림을 견딜 수 없어 파손될 가능성이 매우 높습니다 (Bole et al. 1994). 빽빽한 클라인 경계 근처에서 항해하는 잠수함이 해양 내부 파도 활동을 만나게되면 내부 파도에 의한 상승 전류로 인해 잠수함이 해저에 수면에 닿거나 충돌하여 잠수함이 손상 될 수 있습니다.

그러나 바다의 내부 파는 바람직하지 않으며 매우 중요한 역할을합니다. 예를 들어, 내부 파가 심해 지역에서 근해 대륙붕으로 전달되면 상하수 체가 교환됩니다. 해저에 영양분을 운반합니다. 선반 가장자리까지 생물학적 성장을 촉진하고 해당 지역의 생태 환경을 조절하며 (Osborne and Bruch et al., 1980; Sandstorm and Elliot et al., 1984) 어업 자원을 풍부하게합니다.

위에서 언급 한 항목 외에도 해저에 대한 케이블 및 파이프 라인, 수중 음파 탐지기, 해양 생물 환경, 군사 활동 등이 해양 내부 파도의 영향에 포함되므로 해양 내부 파도에 대한 연구가 매우 중요합니다.

최근 내부 파를 연구하는 방법에는 분석 이론 도출, 현장 조사 및 관찰, 실험실 실험 분석이 포함됩니다. 그러나 과학 기술의 급속한 발전, 발전과 발전, 컴퓨터의 대중화, 수치 계산 방법의 진화로 해양 공학과 관련된 많은 파동 효과는 일반적으로 수치 시뮬레이션 방법으로 해결됩니다.

또한 수치 연산 방법의 비용이 현장 조사 관측 및 실험실 실험 해석보다 저렴하고 시뮬레이션 결과를 더 빨리 얻을 수 있기 때문에 본 논문에서는 전산 유체 역학 (전산 유체 역학, 참조)의 FLOW-를 선정 하였다. 3D 소프트웨어는 내부 파 생성, 전송, 장애물 통과, 점차 소멸하는 움직임 과정을 시뮬레이션하고, 내부 파의 변화 과정을 분석하고 비교하기 위해 이전 실험실 모델 실험을 참조합니다.

圖3. 3 實驗室下沉型內孤立波經過13°斜坡梯形障礙物的連續組圖（鄭明宏，2011）

圖3. 3 (a) 實驗室下沉型內孤立波（鄭明宏，2011；θ=13°，T = t0 = 42 s）

圖3. 5 比較實驗室（上圖）內孤立波（圖3. 3 (a)）與FLOW-3D模擬（下圖）的傳遞波形（θ=13°，t = 42 s）

圖4. 53 內波在三角形前坡反轉為順時針渦流，後坡面上形成逆時針渦流（t = 63 s）

원문 바로가기

Reference

Apel, J.R., Holbrook, J.R, Tsai, J. and Liu, A.K. (1985). The Sulu Sea internal soliton experiment. J. Phys. Oceanography, 15(12): 1625-1651. Ariyaratnam, J. (1998). Investigation of slope stability under internal wave action. B.Eng. (Hons.) thesis, Dept. of Environmental Eng., University of Western Australia, Australia. Baines, P.G. (1983). Tidal motion in submarine canyons – a laboratory experiment. J. Physical Oceanography, 13: 310-328. Benjamin, T.B. (1966). Internal waves of finite amplitude and permanent form. J. Fluid Mech., 25: 241-270. Bole, J.B., Ebbesmeyer, J.J. and Romea, R.D. (1994). Soliton currents in South China Sea: measurements and theoretical modelling. Proc. 26th Annual Offshore Tech. Conf., Houston, Texas. 367-375. Burnside, W. (1889). On the small wave-motions of a heterogeneous fluid under gravity. Proc. Lond., Math. Soc., (1) xx, 392-397. Chen C.Y., J.R-C. Hsu, H.H. Chen, C.F. Kuo and Cheng M.H (2007). Laboratory observations on internal solitary wave evolution on steep and inverse uniform slopes. Ocean Engineering, 34: 157-170. Cheng M.H., J.R-C. Hsu, C.Y. Chen (2005). Numerical model for internal solitary wave evolution on impermeable variable seabad, Proc.27th Ocean Eng, pp.355-359. Choi, W. and Camassa, R. (1996). Weakly nonlinear internal waves in a two-fluid system. J. Fluid Mech., 313: 83-103. Ebbesmeyer, C.C., and Romea, R.D. (1992). Final design parameters for solitons at selected locations in South China Sea. Final and supplementary reports prepared for Amoco Production Company, 209pp. plus appendices. Ekman, V. M., (1904). “On dead-water, Norwegian North Polar Expedition”, 1893-1896. Scientific Results, 5(15)：1-150. Farmer, D.M. (1978). Observation of long nonlinear internal waves in a lake. J. Phys. Oceanography, 8(1): 63-73. Garret, C. and Munk, W. (1972). Space-time scales of internal waves. Geophys. Fluid Dyn., 3: 225-264. Gill, A.E. (1982). Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics. International Geophysical Series, Vol. 30, San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Harleman, D.R.F. (1961). Stratified flow. Ch. 26 in Handbook of Fluid Dynamics (ed., V. Streeter), NY: McGraw-Hill, (26): 1-21. Helfrich, K.R. (1992). Internal solitary wave breaking and run-up on a uniform slope. J. Fluid Mech., 243: 133-154.

Helfrich, K.R. and Melville, W.K. (1986). On long nonlinear internal waves over slope-shelf topography. J. Fluid Mech., 167: 285-308. Honji, H., Matsunaga, N., Sugihara, Y. and Sakai, K. (1995). Experimental observation of interanl symmetric solitary waves in a two-layer fluid. Fluid Dynamics Research, 15 (2): 89-102. Hsu, M.K., Liu, A.K., and Liu, C. (2000). A study of internal waves in the China Sea and Yellow Sea using SAR. Continental Shelf Research, 20: 389-410. Johns, K. (1999). Interaction of an internal wave with a submerged sill in a two-layer fluid. B.Eng. (Hons.) thesis, Dept. of Environmental Eng., University of Western Australia, Australia Kao, T.W., Pan, F.S. and Renouard, D. (1985). Internal solitions on the pycnocline: generation, propagation, shoaling and breaking over a slope. J. Fluid Mech. 159: 19-53. Koop, C.G. and Butler, G. (1981). An investigation of internal solitary waves in a two-fluid system. J. Fluid Mech., 112: 225-251. Lin, T.W. (2001). A study on internal waves characteristics in north of South China Sea, Master Thesis, Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan Univ., Taiwan. (In Chinese). Lynett, P., Wu, T.-R. and Liu, P. L.-F. (2002), Modeling wave runup with depth-integrated equations, Coastal Engineering, Vol. 46, pp. 89-107. Ming-Hung Cheng,John R.-C. Hsu, Chen-Yuan Chen and Cheng-Wu Chen (2009). Modelling the propagation of an internal solitary wave across double ridges and a shelf-slope.Environ Fluid Mech,9:321–340. Ming-Hung Cheng and John R.C. Hsu (2011). Effect of frontal slope on waveform evolution of a depression interfacial solitary wave across a trapezoidal obstacle. Ocean Engineering. Matsuno, Y. (1993). A unified theory of nonlinear wave propagation in two-layer fluid systems. J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 62: 1902-1916. Michallet, H. and Barthelemy, E. (1998). Experimental study of interfacial solitary waves. J. Fluid Mech., 366: 159-177. Muller, P. and X. Liu (2000). Scattering of internal waves at finite topography in two dimensions. Part I: Theory and case studies, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30: 532-549 Nagashima, H. (1971). Reflection and breaking of internal waves on a sloping beach. J. Oceanographical Soc. Japan, 27(1): 1-6. Nansen, F. (1902). The oceanography of the north polar basin. Sci. Results, Norwegian North Polar Expedition 1893-1896, 3: 9. Osborne, A.R. and Burch, T.L. (1980). Internal solitons in the Andaman Sea. Science, 208 (43): 451-460

82 Russell, J.S. (1844). On waves. Report of the 14th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, York, 311-390. Sandstrom, H. and Elliot J. A. (1984). Internal tide and solitons on the Scotian Shelf: a nutrient pump at work. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89 (C4): 6415-6428. Stokes G.G. (1847). On the Theory of Oscillatory Waves. Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 8: 441–455. Strutt, J. W., Lord Rayleigh. (1883). Investigation of the character of the equilibrium of an incompressible heavy fluid of variable density.Proceedings of the London mathematical society, 8: pp. 170-177. Sveen, J.K., Guo, Y., Davies, P.A. and Grue, J. (2002). On the breaking of internal solitary waves at a ridge. J. Fluid Mech., 469 (25): 161-188. Vlasenko, V., and Hutter, K. (2002). Numerical experiments on the breaking of solitary internal waves over a slope-shelf topography. J. of Physical Oceanography, 32(6), pp.1779-1793. Wessels F. and Hutter K. (1996). Interaction of internal waves with a topographic sill in a two-layered fluid. J. Phys. Oceanogr , 26: 5-20

Figure 10.—Temperature contour time sequence for an EDS scale propellant tank at a jet mixing velocity of 0.06 m/s.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Simulations of Jet Mixing in Tanks of Different Scales

NASA/TM—2010-216749

Kevin Breisacher and Jeffrey Moder
Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Prepared for the57th Joint Army-Navy-NASA-Air Force (JANNAF) Propulsion Meetingsponsored by the JANNAF Interagency Propulsion CommitteeColorado Springs, Colorado, May 3–7, 2010

Abstract

극저온 추진제의 장기 공간 저장을 위해 축류 제트 믹서는 탱크 압력을 제어하고 열 층화를 줄이기위한 하나의 개념입니다. 1960 년대부터 현재까지 10 피트 이하의 탱크 직경에 대한 광범위한 지상 테스트 데이터가 존재합니다.

Ares V EDS (Earth Departure Stage) LH2 탱크 용으로 계획된 것과 같이 직경이 30 피트 정도 인 탱크 용 축류 제트 믹서를 설계하려면 훨씬 더 작은 탱크에서 사용 가능한 실험 데이터를 확장하고 미세 중력을 설계해야 합니다.

이 연구는 10 배 차이가 나는 2 개의 탱크 크기에서 기존의 지상 기반 축류 제트 혼합 실험의 시뮬레이션을 수행하여 이러한 규모의 변화를 처리하는 전산 유체 역학 (CFD)의 능력을 평가합니다. 저궤도 (LEO) 해안 동안 Ares V 스케일 EDS LH2 탱크에 대한 여러 축 제트 구성의 시뮬레이션이 평가되고 선택된 결과도 제공됩니다.

두 가지 탱크 크기 (직경 1 및 10 피트)의 물을 사용하여 General Dynamics에서 1960 년대에 수행한 제트 혼합 실험 데이터를 사용하여 CFD 정확도를 평가합니다. 제트 노즐 직경은 직경 1 피트 탱크 실험의 경우 0.032 ~ 0.25 인치, 직경 10 피트 탱크 실험의 경우 0.625 ~ 0.875 인치였습니다.

제트 믹서를 켜기 전에 두 탱크에서 열 층화 층이 생성되었습니다. 제트 믹서 효율은 층화 층이 섞일 때까지 탱크의 열전대 레이크의 온도를 모니터링하여 결정되었습니다. 염료는 층화된 탱크에 자주 주입되었고 침투가 기록되었습니다. 실험 데이터에서 사용 가능한 속도나 난류량은 없었습니다.

제시된 시뮬레이션에는 자유 표면 추적 (Flow Science, Inc.의 FLOW-3D)이 포함된 시판되고 시간 정확도가 높은 다차원 CFD 코드가 사용됩니다. 서로 다른 시간에 탱크의 다양한 축 위치에서 계산 된 온도와 실험적으로 관찰된 온도를 비교합니다. 획득한 합의에 대한 다양한 모델링 매개 변수의 영향을 평가합니다.

Introduction

Constellation 프로그램의 일부인 Ares V는 우주 비행사를 달로 돌려 보내도록 설계된 무거운 리프트 발사기입니다. Ares V 스택의 일부인 EDS (Earth Departure Stage)는 지구의 중력에서 벗어나 승무원 차량과 달 착륙선을 달로 보내는데 필요합니다.

이러한 차량의 질량과 달로 보내는 데 필요한 에너지 때문에 EDS의 액체 수소(LH2)와 액체 산소(LO2) 추진제 탱크는 매우 클 것입니다(직경 10m). 탱크 내부로의 환경적 열 누출로 인해 혼합 장치를 포함한 열역학적 환기 시스템(TV)은 설계 한계 내에서 탱크 압력을 유지하고 엔진 시동에 필요한 한도 내에서 액체 온도를 유지하기 위해 며칠의 순서에 따라 공간 내 저장 기간 동안 필요할 수 있습니다.

이러한 혼합 장치 중 하나는 그림 1과 2와 같이 탱크 바닥 근처에 있는 (순가속과 관련하여) 탱크 축을 따라 중심에 있는 축 제트입니다. 축방향 제트 혼합기와 TVS에 통합된 것은 1960년대 중반부터 연구되어 왔으며(참조 1~5), 광범위한 축방향 제트 접지 테스트 데이터(비사이로젠(참조 1~9), 극저온(참조 10~16) 유체 사용), 에탄올을 사용한 일부 드롭 타워 테스트 데이터(참조 17 및 18)가 있습니다. 극저온 추진제를 사용하는 축방향 제트에 대한 기존 접지 테스트 데이터는 3m(10ft) 이하의 탱크 직경으로 제한됩니다.

저자가 알고 있는 바와 같이, 현재 임계 미달의 극저온 추진체를 사용하는 폐쇄형 탱크에 축방향 제트가 포함된 낙하탑, 항공기 또는 우주 비행 시험 데이터는 없습니다.

축방향 제트(Axial jet)는 지구 저궤도(LEO) 연안의 며칠 동안 EDS LH2 탱크에서 작동하는 혼합 장치의 후보 중 하나입니다. 제안된 EDS 탱크 척도의 극저온 저장 탱크에서 작동하는 축 제트 실험 데이터가 존재하지 않기 때문에, EDS 탱크를 위한 축 제트 TV의 초기 설계는 기존 데이터에 대해 고정된 상관 관계 및 CFD 분석에 의존할 필요가 있습니다.

이 연구는 두 개의 탱크 척도에서 크기 순서로 다른 축방향 제트 열분해 성능을 예측하기 위한 CFD 정확도 평가의 현재 진행 상황을 보고합니다. CFD 시뮬레이션은 물을 작동 유체로 사용하는 접지 테스트 축 제트 데이터(참조 1 – 4)와 비교됩니다. 이 평가를 위해 선택된 CFD 코드는 Flow Science(참조 21)의 상용 코드 FLOW-3D로, 극저온 저장 탱크 및 축방향 제트(참조 22~24)의 이전 분석에서 사용되었습니다.

LEO의 대표적인 EDS LH2 탱크에 대한 예비 축 제트 시뮬레이션도 여러 축 제트 구성에 대해 수행됩니다. 이러한 축방향 제트 구성의 열분해 성능을 평가하고 선택된 결과를 제시합니다.

이러한 예비 축방향 제트 EDS 시뮬레이션은 비교적 짧은 시간 동안 혼합기 성능만 평가합니다. 탱크 열 누출, 위상 변화 및 일반적인 자기 압력(제트 오프)/압력 붕괴(제트 온) 사이클을 포함한 보다 상세한 시뮬레이션이 향후 작업에서 추진될 수 있습니다.

Figure 1.—Schematic of the small water tank / Figure 2.—Schematic of the large water tank

Figure 5.—Temperature contours for large tank jet mixing simulation. (Temperature contour range 294 to 302 K)

상세 내용은 원문을 참조하시기 바랍니다.

Figure 9.—Schematic of a representative EDS scale propellant tank.

Figure 14.—Temperature contour at t = 1000 s for the five jet mixer with a 0.06 m/s jet velocity

Summary and Conclusions

사용 가능한 유사성 상관 관계를 사용하는 스케일링 전략은 EDS 클래스 제트 믹서에 대한 적절한 제트 크기 및 작동 조건을 결정하기 위해 개발되었습니다. 물 탱크 시뮬레이션에서 결정된 모델링 매개 변수를 사용하여 열 층화를 제어하기 위해 제트 믹서를 사용하여 EDS 등급 추진제 탱크의 혼합 이력에 대한 CFD 시뮬레이션을 수행했습니다.

시뮬레이션 결과는 다양한 믹싱 동작을 보여 주며 유사성 매개 변수의 사용에서 예상되는 것과 일치했습니다. 이러한 결과는 하위 규모 테스트 및 유사성 상관 관계와 함께 CFD 시뮬레이션이 EDS 등급 탱크를위한 효율적인 제트 믹서 설계를 허용 할 것이라는 확신을 제공합니다.

CFD 시뮬레이션은 다양한 크기의 직경과 제트를 가진 탱크의 제트 믹서에서 수행되었습니다. 1 피트 직경의 물 탱크에서 제트 혼합에 대해 사용 가능한 실험 데이터와 합리적으로 일치하는 모델링 매개 변수가 결정되었습니다. 동일한 모델링 매개 변수를 사용하여 대략 10 배 정도 떨어져있는 스케일로 워터 제트 혼합 실험에서 혼합을 시뮬레이션했습니다. 시뮬레이션 결과는 실험 온도 데이터와 잘 일치하는 것으로 나타났습니다.

References 1.Poth, L.J., Van Hook, J.R., Wheeler, D.M. and Kee, C.R., “A Study of Cryogenic Propellant Mixing Techniques. Volume 1 – Mixer design and experimental investigations,” NASA CR-73908, Nov 1968. 2.Poth, L.J., Van Hook, J.R., Wheeler, D.M. and Kee, C.R., “A Study of Cryogenic Propellant Mixing Techniques. Volume 2 – Experimental data Final report,” NASA CR-73909, Nov 1968. 3.Scale Experimental Mixing Investigations and Liquid-Oxygen Mixer Design,” NASA CR-113897, Sep 1970. 4.Van Hook, J.R. and Poth, L.J., “Study of Cryogenic Fluid Mixing Techniques. Volume 1 – Large-Van Hook, J.R., “Study of Cryogenic Fluid Mixing Techniques. Volume 2 – Large-Scale Mixing Data,” NASA CR-113914, Sep 1970. 5.Poth, L.J. and Van Hook, J.R., “Control of the Thermodynamic State of Space-Stored Cryogens by Jet Mixing,” J. Spacecraft, Vol. 9, No. 5, 1972. 6.Lovrich, T.N. and Schwartz, S.H., “Development of Thermal Stratification and Destratification Scaling Concepts – Volume II. Stratification Experimental Data,” NASA CR-143945, 1975. 7.Dominick, S.M., “Mixing Induced Condensation Inside Propellant Tanks,” AIAA–1984–0514. 8.Meserole, J.S., Jones, O.S., Brennan, S.M. and Fortini, A., “Mixing-Induced Ullage Condensation and Fluid Destratification,” AIAA–1987–2018. 9.Barsi, S., Kassemi, M., Panzarella, C.H. and Alexander, J.I., “A Tank Self-Pressurization Experiment Using a Model Fluid in Normal Gravity,” AIAA–2005–1143. 10.Stark, J.A. and Blatt, M.H., “Cryogenic Zero-Gravity Prototype Vent System,” NAS8-20146, Convair Report GDC-DDB67-006, Oct 1967. 11.Bullard, B.R., “Liquid Propellant Thermal Conditioning System Test Program,” NAS3-12033, Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., NASA CR-72971, July 1972. 12.Erickson, R.C., “Space LOX Vent System,” NAS8-26972, General Dynamics Convair Report CASD-NAS 75-021, April 1975.

13.Lin, C.S., Hasan, M.M. and Nyland, T.W., “Mixing and Transient Interface Condensation of a Liquid Hydrogen Tank,” NASA TM-106201 (or AIAA–1993–1968), 1993. 14.Lin, C.S., Hasan, M.M. and Van Dresar, N.T., “Experimental Investigation of Jet-Induced Mixing of a Large Liquid Hydrogen Storage Tank,” NASA TM-106629 (or AIAA–1994–2079), 1994. 15.Olsen, A.D., Cady, E.C., Jenkins, D.S. and Hastings, L., “Solar Thermal Upper Stage Cryogenic System Engineering Checkout Test,” AIAA–1999–2604. 16.Van Overbeke, T.J., “Thermodynamic Vent System Test in a Low Earth Orbit Simulation,” NASA/TM—2004-213193 (or AIAA–2004–3838), Oct 2004. 17.Aydelott, J.C., “Axial Jet Mixing of Ethanol in Cylindrical Containers During Weightlessness,” NASA-TP-1487, July 1979. 18.Aydelott, J.C., “Axial Modeling of Space Vehicle Propellant Mixing,” NASA-TP-2107, Jan 1983. 19.Bentz, M.D., “Tank Pressure Control in Low Gravity by Jet Mixing,” NASA CR–191012, Mar. 1993. 20.Hasan, M.M., Lin, C.S., Knoll, R.H. and Bentz, M.D., “Tank Pressure Control Experiment: Thermal Phenomena in Microgravity,” NASA-TP-3564, 1996. 21.FLOW-3D User’s Manual, version 9.4, Flow Science, Inc., Santa Fe, NM 2009. 22.Grayson, G.D., Lopez, A., Chandler, F.O., Hastings, L.J. and Tucker, S.P., “Cryogenic Tank Modeling for the Saturn AS-203 Experiment,” AIAA–2006–5258. 23.Lopez, A., Grayson, G.D., Chandler, F.O., Hastings, L.J., and Hedayat, A., “Cryogenic Pressure Control Modeling for Ellipsoidal Space Tanks,” AIAA–2007–5552. 24.Lopez, A., Grayson, G.D., Chandler, F.O., Hastings, L.J. and Hedayat, A., “Cryogenic Pressure Control Modeling for Ellipsoidal Space Tanks in Reduced Gravity,” AIAA–2008–5104. 25.Thomas, R.M., “Condensation of Steam on Water in Turbulent Motion,” Int. J. Multiphase Flow, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1–15, 1979. 26.Zimmerli, G.A., Asipauskas, M., Chen, Y. and Weislogel, M.M., “A Study of Fluid Interface Configurations in Exploration Vehicle Propellant Tanks,” AIAA–2010–1294.

원문 바로가기

Simulation of EPS foam decomposition in the lost foam casting process

X.J. Liu a,∗, S.H. Bhavnani b,1, R.A. Overfelt c,2
a United States Steel Corporation, Great Lakes Works, #1 Quality Drive, Ecorse, MI 48229, United States b 213 Ross Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5341, United States c 202 Ross Hall, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Materials Engineering Program, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-5341, United States
Received 17 April 2006; received in revised form 14 July 2006; accepted 21 August 2006

Keywords: Lost foam casting; Heat transfer coefficient; Gas pressure; VOF-FAVOR

LFC (Loss Foam Casting) 공정에서 부드러운 몰드 충진의 중요성은 오랫동안 인식되어 왔습니다. 충진 공정이 균일할수록 생산되는 주조 제품의 품질이 향상됩니다. 성공적인 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션은 금형 충전 공정에서 복잡한 메커니즘과 다양한 공정 매개 변수의 상호 작용을 더 잘 이해함으로써 새로운 주조 제품 설계의 시도 횟수를 줄이고 리드 타임을 줄이는데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

이 연구에서는 용융 알루미늄의 유체 흐름과 금속과 발포 폴리스티렌 (EPS) 폼 패턴 사이의 계면 갭에 관련된 열 전달을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 전산 유체 역학 (CFD) 모델이 개발되었습니다.

상업용 코드 FLOW-3D는 VOF (Volume of Fluid) 방법으로 용융 금속의 전면을 추적 할 수 있고 FAVOR (Fractional Area / Volume Ratios) 방법으로 복잡한 부품을 모델링 할 수 있기 때문에 사용되었습니다. 이 코드는 폼 열화 및 코팅 투과성과 관련된 기체 갭 압력을 기반으로 다양한 계면 열 전달 계수 (VHTC)의 효과를 포함하도록 수정되었습니다.

수정은 실험 연구에 대해 검증되었으며 비교는 FLOW-3D의 기본 상수 열 전달 (CHTC) 모델보다 더 나은 일치를 보여주었습니다. 금속 전면 온도는 VHTC 모델에 의해 실험적 불확실성 내에서 예측되었습니다. 몰드 충전 패턴과 1-4 초의 충전 시간 차이는 여러 형상에 대해 CHTC 모델보다 VHTC 모델에 의해 더 정확하게 포착되었습니다. 이 연구는 전통적으로 매우 경험적인 분야에서 중요한 프로세스 및 설계 변수의 효과에 대한 추가 통찰력을 제공했습니다.

지난 20 년 동안 LFC (Loss Foam Casting) 공정은 코어가 필요없는 복잡한 부품을 제조하기 위해 널리 채택되었습니다. 이는 자동차 제조업체가 현재 LFC 기술을 사용하여 광범위한 엔진 블록과 실린더 헤드를 생산하기 때문에 알루미늄 주조 산업에서 특히 그렇습니다.

기본 절차, 적용 및 장점은 [1]에서 찾을 수 있습니다. LFC 프로세스는 주로 숙련 된 실무자의 경험적 지식을 기반으로 개발되었습니다. 발포 폴리스티렌 (EPS) 발포 분해의 수치 모델링은 최근에야 설계 및 공정 변수를 최적화하는 데 유용한 통찰력을 제공 할 수있는 지점에 도달했습니다. LFC 공정에서 원하는 모양의 발포 폴리스티렌 폼 패턴을 적절한 게이팅 시스템이있는 모래 주형에 배치합니다.

폼 패턴은 용융 금속 전면이 패턴으로 진행될 때 붕괴, 용융, 기화 및 열화를 겪습니다. 전진하는 금속 전면과 후퇴하는 폼 패턴 사이의 간격 인 운동 영역은 Warner et al. [2] LFC 프로세스를 모델링합니다. 금형 충진 과정에서 분해 산물은 운동 영역에서 코팅층을 통해 모래로 빠져 나갑니다.

용융 금속과 폼 패턴 사이의 복잡한 반응은 LFC 공정의 시뮬레이션을 극도로 어렵게 만듭니다. SOLA-VOF (SOLution AlgorithmVolume of Fluid) 방법이 Hirt와 Nichols [3]에 의해 처음 공식화 되었기 때문에 빈 금형을 사용한 전통적인 모래 주조 시뮬레이션은 광범위하게 연구되었습니다.

Lost foam 주조 공정은 기존의 모래 주조와 많은 특성을 공유하기 때문에이 새로운 공정을 모델링하는 데 적용된 이론과 기술은 대부분 기존의 모래 주조를 위해 개발 된 시뮬레이션 방법에서 비롯되었습니다. 패턴 분해 속도가 금속성 헤드와 금속 전면 온도의 선형 함수라고 가정함으로써 Wang et al. [4]는 기존의 모래 주조의 기존 컴퓨터 프로그램을 기반으로 복잡한 3D 형상에서 Lost foam 주조 공정을 시뮬레이션했습니다.

Liu et al. [5]는 금속 앞쪽 속도를 예측하기 위한 간단한 1D 수학적 모델과 함께 운동 영역의 배압을 포함했습니다. Mirbagheri et al. [6]은 SOLA-VOF 기술을 기반으로 금속 전면의 자유 표면에 대한 압력 보정 방식을 사용하는 Foam 열화 모델을 개발했습니다.

Kuo et al.에 의해 유사한 배압 방식이 채택되었습니다. [7] 운동량 방정식에서이 힘의 값은 실험 결과에 따라 패턴의 충전 순서를 연구하기 위해 조정되었습니다.

이러한 시뮬레이션의 대부분은 LFC 공정의 충전 속도가 기존의 모래 주조 공정보다 훨씬 느린 것으로 성공적으로 예측합니다. 그러나 Foam 분해의 역할은 대부분 모델의 일부가 아니며 시뮬레이션을 수행하려면 실험 데이터 또는 경험적 함수가 필요합니다.

현재 연구는 일정한 열전달 계수 (CHTC)를 사용하는 상용 코드 FLOW-3D의 기본 LFC 모델을 수정하여 Foam 열화와 관련된 기체 갭 압력에 따라 다양한 열전달 계수 (VHTC)의 영향을 포함합니다. 코팅 투과성. 수정은 여러 공정 변수에 대한 실험 연구에 대해 검증되었습니다.

또한, 손실 된 폼 주조에서 가장 중요한 문제인 결함 형성은 문헌에서 인용 된 수치 작업에서 모델링되지 않았습니다. 접힘, 내부 기공 및 표면 기포와 같은 열분해 결함은 LFC 작업에서 많은 양의 스크랩을 설명합니다. FLOW-3D의 결함 예측 기능은 프로세스를 이해하고 최적화하는데 매우 중요합니다.

Fig. 7. Comparison of mold filling times for a plate pattern with three ingates: (a) measured values by thermometric technique [18]; (b) predicted filling times based on basic CHTC model with gravity effect; and (c) predicted filing times based on the VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient changing with gas pressure; (d) mold filling time at the right-and wall of the mold for the plate pattern with three ingates.

Fig. 10. Defects formation predicted by (a) basic CHTC model with gravity effect; (b) VHTC model with heat transfer coefficient based on both gas pressure and coating thickness; and (c) improved model for two ingates. Color represents probability for defects (blue is the lowest and red highest).

논문 원문 바로가기

References

[1] S. Shivkumar, L. Wang, D. Apelian, The lost-foam casting of aluminum alloy components, JOM 42 (11) (1990) 38–44.
[2] M.H. Warner, B.A. Miller, H.E. Littleton, Pattern pyrolysis defect reduction in lost foam castings, AFS Trans. 106 (1998) 777–785.
[3] C.W. Hirt, B.D. Nichols, Volume of Fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free boundaries, J. Comp. Phys. 39 (1) (1981) 201–225.
[4] C. Wang, A.J. Paul, W.W. Fincher, O.J. Huey, Computational analysis of fluid flow and heat transfer during the EPC process, AFS Trans. 101 (1993) 897–904.
[5] Y. Liu, S.I. Bakhtiyarov, R.A. Overfelt, Numerical modeling and experimental verification of mold filling and evolved gas pressure in lost foam casting process, J. Mater. Sci. 37 (14) (2002) 2997–3003.
[6] S.M.H. Mirbagheri, H. Esmaeileian, S. Serajzadeh, N. Varahram, P. Davami, Simulation of melt flow in coated mould cavity in the lost foam casting process, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 142 (2003) 493–507.
[7] J.-H. Kuo, J.-C. Chen, Y.-N. Pan, W.-S. Hwang, Mold filling analysis in lost foam casting process for aluminum alloys and its experimental validation, Mater. Trans. 44 (10) (2003) 2169–2174.
[8] C.W. Hirt, Flow-3D User’s Manual, Flow Science Inc., 2005.
[9] E.S. Duff, Fluid flow aspects of solidification modeling: simulation of low pressure die casting, The University of Queensland, Ph.D. Thesis, 1999.
[10] X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, The effects of foam density and metal velocity on the heat and mass transfer in the lost foam casting process, in: Proceedings of the ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, 2003,
pp. 317–323.
[11] W. Sun, P. Scarber Jr., H. Littleton, Validation and improvement of computer modeling of the lost foam casting process via real time X-ray technology, in: Multiphase Phenomena and CFD Modeling and Simulation in
Materials Processes, Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 2004, pp. 245–251.
[12] T.V. Molibog, Modeling of metal/pattern replacement in the lost foam casting process, Materials Engineering, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Ph.D. Thesis, 2002.
[13] X.J. Liu, S.H. Bhavnani, R.A. Overfelt, Measurement of kinetic zone temperature and heat transfer coefficient in the lost foam casting process, ASME Int. Mech. Eng. Congr. (2004) 411–418.
[14] X. Yao, An experimental analysis of casting formation in the expendable
pattern casting (EPC) process, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, M.S. Thesis, 1994.
[15] M.R. Barkhudarov, C.W. Hirt, Tracking defects, Die Casting Engineer 43 (1) (1999) 44–52.
[16] C.W. Hirt, Modeling the Lost Foam Process with Defect PredictionsProgress Report: Lost-Foam Model Extensions, Wicking, Flow Science Inc., 1999.
[17] D. Wang, Thermophysical Properties, Solidification Design Center, Auburn University, 2001.
[18] S. Shivkumar, B. Gallois, Physico-chemical aspects of the full mold casting of aluminum alloys, part II: metal flow in simple patterns, AFS Trans. 95 (1987) 801–812.

Figure 1.2: Left panel: 3D CAD drawing of a printhead prototype showing (a) the melting unit, (b) the filter units, (c) the reservoir, (d) the static pressure hose, (e) the central part, and (f) the electronic driving supply. Image retrieved from [8]. Right panel: A schematic showing a single nozzle uint in the central part (e) of the printhead shown in the left panel.

Lattice Boltzmann method for contact line dynamics

접촉선 역학을 위한 Lattice Boltzmann 방법

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, op gezag van de
rector magnificus prof.dr.ir. C.J. van Duijn, voor een
commissie aangewezen door het College voor
Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen
op woensdag 7 mei 2014 om 16:00 uur

Introduction

움직이는 접촉선은 본질적으로 어디에나 존재하며, 표면에 미끄러지는 물방울은 우리가 일상에서 만나는 일반적인 예입니다. 유체 역학의 접촉선은 일반적으로 액체, 고체 및 주변 공기/증기 사이의 공통 경계라고합니다.

최근 미세 유체 공학의 발전으로 인해 접촉 라인의 역학을 제어하는 힘과 흐름 조건에 대한 근본적인 이해와 기술에 대한 많은 요구가 제기되었습니다. 이 논문은 접촉선의 물리학, 분석 및 수치 모델링 및 고무적인 산업 기하학과 관련된 측면을 포함합니다.

동기를 부여하는 산업 응용 분야는 이머전 리소그래피 (ASML)와 잉크젯 노즐 (Océ)의 프린트 헤드입니다. 이 두 가지 문제는 몇 가지 특징적인 길이 및 시간 척도, 고도로 구부러진 유체 인터페이스, 다상 흐름 및 복잡한 경계 조건을 포함하므로 분석 및 수치 연구가 어렵습니다.

포토 리소그래피는 서브 마이크론 정확도로 마스크에서 실리콘 웨이퍼로 패턴을 전송할 수 있는 복잡한 절차입니다 [1]. 포토 리소그래피 공정의 핵심 단계 중 하나는 고해상도 광학 시스템을 사용하여 실리콘 웨이퍼에 코팅 된 포토 레지스트를 DUV (심 자외선) 빛으로 노출시키는 것입니다. 광학 시스템을 사용하여 웨이퍼에 마스킹 할 수 있는 가장 작은 특징 또는 임계 치수 CD는 Rayleigh 기준으로 결정됩니다.

여기서 NA는 광학 시스템의 개구 수를 나타내고, λ는 사용 된 빛의 파장이고 k는 공정 종속 상수입니다. 광학 분야에서 광학 시스템의 개구 수 NA = n sin α는 시스템이 빛을 받아들이거나 방출 할 수 있는 각도 범위를 특성화하는 무차원 숫자입니다.

여기서 α는 렌즈의 수용 각도입니다 (0 < α <π / 2) 및 n은 렌즈와 포토 레지스트 사이의 매질의 굴절률입니다. CD의 가치가 감소하면 전자 장치가 더 작고 빨라집니다. 식에 의해 주어진 레일리 기준에 따르면. (1.1), 더 작은 CD 값은 k 또는 λ를 줄이거 나 NA를 늘림으로써 얻을 수 있습니다. 현재 KrF 및 ArF 엑시머 레이저의 경우 빛의 파장은 각각 최대 280nm 및 193nm까지 감소 될 수 있습니다 [1]. k는 분해능 향상 기술을 사용하여 0.4까지 감소 된 공정 의존 상수입니다 [2 ]. 개구 수는 sin α 또는 n을 증가시켜 증가시킬 수 있습니다.

sin α에 대한 실제 한계는 0.93으로, 이론적 한계 | sin α |에 매우 가깝습니다. ≤ 1. n을 늘리는 것이 이머전 리소그래피 사용의 기본 아이디어입니다. Immersion lithography는 렌즈와 포토 레지스트 사이의 에어 갭이 물로 대체되는 포토 리소그래피 기법입니다 (그림 1.1 (왼쪽 패널) 참조). 침지 리소그래피에 사용되는 물은 193nm 파장에 대해 1.44의 굴절률을 가진 고도로 정제 된 탈 이온수입니다 [3]. 이 굴절률 값은 분해 가능한 피처 크기의 해상도를 약 30 % 정도 증가시킵니다 [3].

이 방법은 훨씬 더 비싼 리소그래피 기술 [4]로 큰 변화를 가져 오지 않아도 된다는 장점을 가지고 더 작은 피처 크기를 달성하는 저렴한 방법입니다. 물이 웨이퍼의 포토 레지스트와 직접 접촉하기 때문에 이머전 리소그래피 기술은 주로 렌즈와 포토 레지스트의 오염 가능성과 관련된 몇 가지 문제를 야기합니다.

특히 웨이퍼 플레이트가 렌즈에 비해 Up 속도로 움직일 때 액체-공기-고체 접촉 라인도 움직입니다 (그림 1.1 (오른쪽 패널) 참조). 특정 최소 속도를 넘어 서면 전진 및 후퇴 접촉 선 (그림 1.1, 오른쪽 패널 참조)이 불안정 해지고 각각 공기를 동반하거나 액체 필름을 웨이퍼로 끌 수 있습니다 [5].

공기와 액체 필름은 결국 기포 나 액체 방울로 부서져서 리소그래피 공정에 부정적인 영향을 미칩니다. 이 논문에서 우리는 플레이트의 속도, 웨이퍼의 습윤 특성 및 주변 공기의 점도에 따라 전진 및 후퇴하는 접촉 라인의 안정성 연구에 기여했습니다.

1.1.2 Drop-on-demand inkjet printer

최신 잉크젯 인쇄 기술은 CIJ (연속 잉크젯) 및 DOD (주문형 드롭) 잉크젯의 두 가지 주요 유형으로 나눌 수 있습니다. CIJ 프린터에서 미세 노즐에서 나오는 액체 분사는 RP (Rayleigh-Plateau) 불안정성으로 인해 물방울로 분해됩니다. 이 RP 불안정성은 액체의 흐름을 정확하게 제어 할 수있는 음향 변동을 생성하는 압전 결정에 의해 유발되어 일정한 간격으로 물방울로 분해됩니다 [7].

DOD 잉크젯 프린터는 작동 원리에 따라 두 가지 범주로 더 나눌 수 있습니다 [8]. 여기서는 압전 잉크젯 (PIJ) 프린터에만 중점을 둡니다. PIJ 프린터에서 낙하 형성은 압전 소자에 의해 생성 된 압력 파에 의해 발생합니다. PIJ 프린터의 프린트 헤드 개략도가 그림 1.2에 나와 있습니다.

PIJ 프린터는 CIJ 프린터에 비해 상대적으로 느리지 만 인쇄 품질이 훨씬 더 높습니다 [7]. 프린터의 품질은 일반적으로 평방 인치당 도트 수 (dpi)로 측정되며 최신 응용 프로그램에는 더 작은 물방울 (높은 dpi)과 더 나은 정확도가 필요합니다. 방울의 정확도와 크기에 영향을 미치는 여러 요인 중에서 노즐, 노즐 플레이트의 젖음성 및 방울 형성 빈도 fDOD가 중요한 역할을합니다 [8].

좋은 방울 형성을 위해 접촉 라인의 위치는 노즐 내에서 정밀하게 제어되어야 합니다. 이 논문에서는 PIJ 프린터에서 드롭 형성의 일부 측면에만 중점을 둡니다. 우리의 연구는 노즐 습윤성과 DOD 주파수가 방울 형성 과정에 미치는 영향을 연구 할 수 있는 수치 도구의 개발을 목표로 합니다.

Figure 2.2: The liquid-vapor interface at the microscopic length scale obtained from a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation using Lennard-Jones potential. The vertical axis is in units of the molecular diameter σ and the stress shown in panel (c) is measured in /σ3 . Here, is the energy scale corresponding to the intermolecular forces. (a) Snapshot of the liquid-vapor interface in the MD simulation. The red dotted line divides the system in two parts: Left and right. (b) Time-averaged normalized density profile ρ ∗ (z) across the interface. (c) Tangential force per unit area exerted by the left part on the right part of the system. The plot shows the difference between the normal and the tangential components of stress tensor: Π(z) = σ n − σ t . Images reproduced from [16].

Figure 2.3: Left panel: Water drops on a glass substrate (Image source: http: // way2science. com/ molecular-theory-of-surface-tension).The red dotted line in the figure shows the position of the contact line. The shape of the big drops is affected by the force due to gravity. Right panel: Schematics of a liquid drop on a smooth non-deformable solid surface. The figure shows the contact angle, θe, in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Figure 6.1: Left panel: schematic of a single nozzle unit in the printhead. Right panel: schematic of the channel-nozzle section of the printhead. The axisymmetric channel-nozzle section (right panel) is the simulation domain for our LB simulation (R = Rc).

논문 원문 바로가기

FLOW-3D CAST

FLOW-3D CAST 2024R1은 영구 금형 주조를 위한 여러 가지 개선 사항을 포함하고 있으며, 그 중 첫 번째는 Thermal die cycling 시뮬레이션에서 보다 시각적으로 편리한 냉각 채널 설정입니다. 이를 통해 냉각 채널 타이밍 설정을 더 쉽게 하고 입력 오류의 가능성을 줄일 수 있습니다. 이 개선 사항은 각 냉각 채널이 활성화되는 시점과 관련 속성을 쉽게 확인할 수 있도록 합니다.

Cooling channel setup — 냉각 채널은 이제 다른 공정 타이밍과 함께 표시되어 복잡한 시스템을 간단하고 시각적으로 표현합니다.

또한, 간단한 스프레이/금형 처리 모델을 확장하여 캐비티뿐만 아니라 파팅 라인에도 스프레이할 수 있는 옵션을 추가했습니다. 이를 통해 이러한 유형의 금형 처리 방식을 쉽게 그리고 현실적으로 표현할 수 있어 더 나은 열 예측을 할 수 있습니다. 유사하게, 이제 Thermal die cycling 시뮬레이션 중에 플런저의 움직임을 고려하여 열 예측의 정확성을 향상시켰습니다.

또 다른 개발 사항은 초기 단계 금형 설계에서 더 빠른 열 해석을 제공하면서도 해석의 정확도를 유지할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다. 이는 새로운 열 전달 모드를 기하학적 형태에 대해 활성화하여 사용합니다.

FLOW-3D CAST 2024R1에는 두 가지 새로운 출력이 추가되었습니다. 첫 번째는 금형에 대한 특정 열 전달로, 금형으로 전달되는 열의 속도를 저장하고 금형의 다양한 위치에서 필요한 냉각 능력에 대한 통찰을 제공합니다. 두 번째 출력은 공동 발생 하중으로, 공동 손상이 발생할 가능성이 있는 영역을 표시합니다.

마지막으로, 사용자 기대에 더 맞도록 기존 모델에 두 가지 조정을 추가했습니다. 첫 번째는 밸브가 가장 가까운 open volume에 적용되도록 수정하여, 금형 표면이 실수로 밸브를 비활성화하는 가능성을 없앴습니다. 두 번째 조정은 모델을 사용할 때 플런저 가속도의 기본 한계를 더 현실적으로 설정한 것입니다. 이전의 기본값은 노이즈가 발생될 가능성이 있었습니다.

새로운 결과 파일 형식

FLOW-3D POST 2023R2는 EXODUS II 형식을 기반으로 하는 완전히 새로운 결과 파일 형식을 도입하여 더 빠른 후처리를 가능하게 합니다. 이 새로운 파일 형식은 크고 복잡한 시뮬레이션의 후처리 작업에 소요되는 시간을 크게 줄이는 동시에(평균 최대 5배!) 다른 시각화 도구와의 연결성을 향상시킵니다.

FLOW-3D POST 2023R2 에서 사용자는 이제 flsgrf , EXODUS II 또는 flsgrf 및 EXODUS II 파일 형식 으로 선택한 데이터를 쓸 수 있습니다 . 새로운 EXODUS II 파일 형식은 각 객체에 대해 유한 요소 메쉬를 활용하므로 사용자는 다른 호환 가능한 포스트 프로세서 및 FEA 코드를 사용 하여 FLOW-3D 결과를 열 수도 있습니다. 새로운 워크플로우를 통해 사용자는 크고 복잡한 사례를 신속하게 시각화하고 임의 슬라이싱, 볼륨 렌더링 및 통계를 사용하여 보조 정보를 추출할 수 있습니다.

새로운 결과 파일 형식은 솔버 엔진의 성능을 저하시키지 않으면서 flsgrf 에 비해 시각화 작업 흐름에서 놀라운 속도 향상을 자랑합니다.

FLOW-3D POST의 표면 LIC — ***FLOW-3D POST*** 의 새로운 EXODUS II 파일 형식 및 Surface LIC 표현의 예

이 흥미로운 새로운 개발은 결과 분석의 속도와 유연성이 향상되어 사용자에게 원활한 시뮬레이션 경험을 제공합니다. FLOW-3D POST 의 새로운 시각화 기능 에 대해 자세히 알아보세요 .

정수압 초기화

사용자가 사전 정의된 금속 영역에서 정수압을 초기화해야 하는 경우가 종종 있습니다. 크고 복잡한 시뮬레이션에서는 정수압 솔버의 수렴 속도가 느려지는 경우가 있습니다. FLOW-3D CAST 2023R2는 정수압 솔버의 성능을 크게 향상시켜 전처리 단계에서 최대 6배 빠르게 수렴할 수 있도록 해줍니다.

새로운 TDC(열 다이 사이클링) 모델

열 다이 사이클링 - 샷 슬리브 — 새로운 Thermal Die Cycling 모델로 예측된 샷 슬리브의 온도 분포

FLOW-3D CAST 2023R2 의 재설계된 열 다이 사이클링(TDC) 모델은 고압 다이 캐스팅 및 기타 영구 금형 주조 공정의 프로세스 시트와 더 잘 일치하는 더 간단하고 직관적인 설정 프로세스를 제공합니다.

이제 TDC 시퀀스는 충전 단계의 시작 부분 에서 시작되어 하위 프로세스 전반에 걸쳐 시간에 따른 냉각/가열 라인 정의에 대한 더 높은 정확성과 정렬을 제공합니다. 향상된 스프레이 냉각 모델을 통해 사용자는 부품별로 처리 일정을 정의할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라 스프레이, 세척 및 코팅 처리에 대한 옵션을 처방할 수 있습니다. 슬라이더 동작도 포함되며 이제 냉각 채널과 가열 요소가 슬라이더와 함께 이동합니다.

이러한 기능은 다양한 단계, 일정, 이동, 처리 및 조립 단계를 보여주는 깔끔하고 직관적인 프로세스 개요를 제공하는 새로운 Thermal Die Cycling 대화 상자를 통해 제어됩니다.

FLOW-3D CAST의 열 다이 사이클링 대화상자 — ***FLOW-3D CAST*** 의 새로운 Thermal Die Cycling 대화 상자

이러한 개발은 개선된 열 솔루션뿐만 아니라 TDC와 관련된 공정의 응고 및 납땜에 대한 더 나은 예측을 촉진합니다.

FLOW-3D CAST 2023R1 의 새로운 기능

FLOW-3D 소프트웨어 제품군의 모든 제품은 2023R1에서 IT 관련 개선 사항을 받았습니다.

FLOW-3D CAST 2023R1은 이제 Windows 11 및 RHEL 8을 지원합니다. Linux 설치 프로그램은 누락된 종속성을 보고하도록 개선되었으며 더 이상 루트 수준 권한이 필요하지 않으므로 설치가 더 쉽고 안전해집니다. 그리고 워크플로를 자동화한 분들을 위해 입력 파일 변환기에 명령줄 인터페이스를 추가하여 스크립트 환경에서도 워크플로가 업데이트된 입력 파일로 작동하는지 확인할 수 있습니다.

FLOW-3D CAST 2023R1 의 고급 기능을 통해 사용자는 다음을 수행할 수 있습니다.

기가캐스팅 제작 시 등 샷 성능 최적화
툴링 마모 해결
고급 탄소강 및 저합금강 주조 시뮬레이션
거시적 분리의 효과를 설명합니다.

플런저 모션 개선

우리는 슬로우 샷 계산기를 개선하여 정확성을 높이고, 공기 혼입을 줄이며, 낮은 충전 수준을 더 잘 처리할 수 있도록 유효성 범위를 확장했습니다. 또한 사용자 인터페이스를 간소화했으며 향상된 슬로우 샷 계산기와 결합하여 인상적인 결과를 제공합니다. 이제 플런저 위치 또는 시간 기반 정의에서 슬로우 샷 계산기의 데이터를 쉽게 사용할 수 있습니다. 새로운 계산기는 또한 슬로우 샷이 끝날 때 혼입되는 공기를 크게 줄이는 세련된 샷 프로필을 제공합니다.

슬로우 샷 계산기 개선 — 2007년 슬로우 샷 계산기와 2022년 버전 비교. 슬로우 샷이 끝나면 새 계산기를 사용하여 동반 공기량이 감소하는 것을 확인하십시오.

확장된 PQ ² 분석

대형 주조는 계산 비용이 많이 들고 기가 주조는 시뮬레이션 소프트웨어를 한계까지 밀어붙일 수 있습니다. 속도 경계 조건이나 금속 입력을 사용하여 샷 슬리브와 플런저를 근사화하는 것은 런타임을 줄이는 유용한 단순화 방법입니다. 그러나 PQ

² 분석 없이는 HPDC 기계가 한계에 가깝게 작동하고 예상대로 작동하지 않아 부품 품질을 위협하는지 알 수 없습니다.

^{우리는 매우 유능한 PQ 2} 분석을 수행 하고 이를 금속 입력 및 속도 경계 조건에 적용하여 이 문제를 해결했습니다. 이는 가장 크고 가장 복잡한 주조에서도 충전 정확도를 유지하면서 처리 시간을 크게 줄이는 것을 의미합니다.

Mold Erosion Prediction | FLOW-3D CAST

주조 금형과 다이는 기계적 스트레스 요인을 포함한 다양한 이유로 마모됩니다. 기존 전단 하중 측정법은 이 마모를 연구할 때 도움이 되지만 지금까지는 금형에 대한 금속의 충돌을 설명하지 못했고 모래 주조 금형에 포함된 모래의 최종 위치를 예측할 수 없었습니다. 이 문제를 해결하기 위해 우리는 이 마모 메커니즘을 더 잘 이해할 수 있도록 새로운 출력을 추가했습니다. 새로운 출력에는 이러한 유형의 침식이 발생할 가능성이 있는 지역과 모래 함유물의 예상 위치가 표시됩니다.

다이 솔더링 예측

알루미늄 주조에 사용되는 영구 다이는 용융된 알루미늄이 다이의 철과 결합하여 화학적 마모를 겪게 되며, 이는 부품 품질뿐만 아니라 다이의 수명과 유지 관리 요구 사항에 영향을 미치는 땜납을 형성합니다. 이 마모 메커니즘의 중요성으로 인해 우리는 납땜의 위치와 심각도를 모두 예측하는 모델을 구축하게 되었습니다.

다이 솔더링 시뮬레이션 — 시뮬레이션된 솔더(왼쪽)와 관찰된 솔더(오른쪽, 빨간색). 사진은 다이에 관한 것이지만 시뮬레이션에서는 부품을 보여주기 때문에 이미지가 거울처럼 보입니다.

화학 기반 탄소 및 저합금강 응고 모델

우리의 장기 개발 목표 중 하나의 결과는 석출 반응, 응고 및 재용해 경로, 미세 구조 특징 및 결함을 정확하게 설명하는 탄소강 및 저합금강에 대한 강력한 화학 기반 응고 모델 입니다. 이 모델은 또한 중요한 3상 포정반응과 델타 페라이트에서 오스테나이트로의 전이로 인한 대량 수축과 관련된 결함을 설명합니다.

이 모델은 실험과의 탁월한 일치를 보여주며, 예를 들어 과포정 합금이 응고가 끝날 때 페라이트 영역을 개발할 수 있는 이유와 같은 비직관적이고 시간 의존적인 동작에 대한 통찰력을 제공합니다.

거시 분리 예측

대규모 분리는 주조품의 품질과 다운스트림 처리에 중요한 영향을 미칠 수 있으므로 이를 화학 기반 응고 모델에 추가했습니다. 이 모델은 매크로 분리 관련 결함이 발생할 수 있는 위치를 예측하므로 캐스팅 전에 이를 예측하고 완화할 수 있습니다.

시뮬레이션 대 실험 강철 주조 — 강철 주조에 대한 실험과 시뮬레이션 결과를 비교합니다. WT Adams, Jr. 및 KW Murphy, “주강 주물에서 라이저 아래의 심각한 화학 물질 분리를 방지하기 위한 최적의 완전 접촉 상단 라이저”, AFS Trans., 88(1980), pp. 389-404

FLOW-3D CAST 2022R2 의 새로운 기능

FLOW-3D CAST 2022R2 제품군 출시로 Flow Science는 FLOW-3D CAST 의 워크스테이션과 HPC 버전을 통합하여 단일 노드 CPU 구성에서 다중 노드 병렬 고성능 컴퓨팅 실행. 추가 개발에는 점탄성 흐름을 위한 새로운 로그 형태 텐서 방법, 지속적인 솔버 속도 성능 개선, 고급 냉각 채널 및 팬텀 구성요소 제어, 개선된 동반 공기 기능이 포함됩니다.

통합 솔버

우리는 FLOW-3D 제품을 단일 통합 솔버로 마이그레이션하여 로컬 워크스테이션이나 고성능 컴퓨팅 하드웨어 환경에서 원활하게 실행했습니다.

많은 사용자가 노트북이나 로컬 워크스테이션에서 모델을 실행하지만, 고성능 컴퓨팅 클러스터에서도 더 큰 모델을 실행합니다. 2022R2 릴리스에서는 통합 솔버를 통해 사용자가 HPC 솔루션의 OpenMP/MPI 하이브리드 병렬화와 동일한 이점을 활용하여 워크스테이션과 노트북에서 실행할 수 있습니다.

메쉬 분해의 예 — OpenMP/MPI 하이브리드 병렬화를 위한 메시 분해의 예

솔버 성능 개선

멀티 소켓 워크스테이션

다중 소켓 워크스테이션은 이제 매우 일반적이며 대규모 시뮬레이션을 실행할 수 있습니다. 새로운 통합 솔버를 사용하면 이러한 유형의 하드웨어를 사용하는 사용자는 일반적으로 HPC 클러스터 구성에서만 사용할 수 있었던 OpenMP/MPI 하이브리드 병렬화를 활용하여 모델을 실행할 수 있어 성능이 향상되는 것을 확인할 수 있습니다.

낮은 수준의 루틴으로 향상된 벡터화 및 메모리 액세스

대부분의 테스트 사례에서 10~20% 정도의 성능 향상이 관찰되었으며 일부 사례에서는 20%를 초과하는 런타임 이점이 나타났습니다.

정제된 체적 대류 안정성 한계

시간 단계 안정성 제한은 모델 런타임의 주요 동인이며, 2022R2에서는 새로운 시간 단계 안정성 제한인 3D 대류 안정성 제한을 숫자 위젯에서 사용할 수 있습니다. 실행 중이고 대류가 제한된(cx, cy 또는 cz 제한) 모델의 경우 새 옵션은 일반적인 속도 향상을 30% 정도 보여줍니다.

압력 솔버 프리컨디셔너

경우에 따라 까다로운 흐름 구성의 경우 과도한 압력 솔버 반복으로 인해 실행 시간이 길어질 수 있습니다. 이러한 어려운 경우 2022R2에서는 모델이 너무 많이 반복되면 FLOW-3D가 자동으로 새로운 사전 조절기를 활성화하여 압력 수렴을 돕습니다. 테스트의 런타임은 1.9에서 335까지 더 빨라졌습니다!

점탄성 유체에 대한 로그 형태 텐서 방법

점탄성 유체에 대한 새로운 솔버 옵션을 사용자가 사용할 수 있으며 특히 높은 Weissemberg 수에 효과적입니다.

활성 시뮬레이션 제어 확장

능동 시뮬레이션 제어 기능이 확장되어 연속 주조 및 적층 제조 응용 분야에 일반적으로 사용되는 팬텀 개체는 물론 주조 및 기타 여러 열 관리 응용 분야에 사용되는 냉각 채널에도 사용됩니다.

팬텀 물체 속도 제어의 예 — 연속 주조 응용 분야에 대한 가상 물체 속도 제어의 예

FLOW-3D CAST 아카이브 의 새로운 기능

FLOW-3D CAST는 다양한 금속 주조 해석이 가능한 완벽한 열유동 해석 프로그램으로, 매우 정확한 모델링과 다기능성, 사용 용이성 및 고성능 클라우드 컴퓨팅 기능을 결합한 최첨단 금속 주조 해석 시뮬레이션 플랫폼입니다. 모든 금속 주조 공정에 대해 FLOW-3D CAST는 빠르고 직관적인 해석이 가능한 작업 공간을 제공합니다. 11개 공정에 대한 Workspace, 강력한 후처리, 충진 예측, 응고 및 결함 분석을 통해 FLOW-3D CAST는 최적의 주조 제품 설계에 필요한 도구와 로드맵을 모두 제공합니다.

FLOW-3D Cast는 거의 모든 주조 공정을 모델링 할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다. FLOW-3D Cast의 매우 정확한 유동 및 응고 결과는 표면 산화물, 혼입된 공기, 매크로 및 미세 다공성과 같은 중요한 주조 결함을 포착합니다. 다른 특별한 모델링 기능으로는 로봇 스프레이 냉각 및 윤활, 샷 슬리브 흐름 프로필, 스퀴즈 핀 및 열 응력을 모델링 할 수있는 열 다이 사이클링이 있습니다.

최적화된 시뮬레이션 설계를 통해 개발 시간을 단축하고 출시 시간을 단축하며 수율을 높일 수 있습니다. FLOW-3D CAST를 사용하면 설계 및 개발 비용을 절감할 수 있습니다.

FLOW-3D Cast Brochure Download

FLOW-3D Cast HPDC Brochure Download

FLOW-3D CAST Continuous Casting Workspace

HPDC Oxides Simulation | FLOW-3D CAST

BMW Injector Casting Process – Innovative ingate system for gravity casting

Continuous Slab Casting | FLOW-3D CAST

Horizontal Centrifugal Pipe Casting | FLOW-3D CAST

Gravitational and sedimentation microfluidic technique (Huh et al. Anal Chem 2007)의 중력 회로도를 사용한 입자 분류

중력을 사용한 미세 유체 입자 분류

Microfluidics Particle Sorting Using Gravity

미세 유체 입자 분류는 진단, 화학적 및 생물학적 분석, 식품 및 화학 처리, 환경 평가에 적용됩니다. 이전 블로그에서 유체 역학을 사용한 미세 유체 입자 분류에 대해 이야기했습니다 . 같은 주제를 바탕으로 중력을 사용하여 미세 입자를 분류하는 또 다른 방법에 대해 논의하겠습니다. 아래 애니메이션에서 볼 수 있습니다.

유비쿼터스 중력(Ubiquitous gravity)은 미세 유체 장치에서 미세 입자를 분류하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다. 중력이 입자의 움직임에 수직으로 작용할 때 입자는 반경에 따른 속도로 안정됩니다. 또한 입자의 운동은 입자의 밀도, 유체의 밀도 및 유체의 점도 사이의 차이에서 비롯된 유체 역학적 효과의 영향을받습니다. 아래 이미지는 중력 분류 기술 회로도를 보여줍니다.

부력 대 항력

앞서 언급했듯이 중력은 서로 다른 입자가 서로 다른 속도로 침전되도록합니다. 모든 입자의 밀도가 같고 입자 밀도가 주변 유체의 밀도보다 낮 으면 부력 우세와 항력 우세라는 두 가지 유형의 분류를 사용할 수 있습니다. 반경이 더 큰 입자는 더 많은 부력을 경험하고 작은 입자 위의 경로를 따르는 경향이 있습니다. 그러나 외장 액체 (입자를 운반하는 용액)의 유입 속도가 충분히 높으면 항력 효과가 우세하기 시작하고 더 큰 입자가 더 작은 입자의 경로 아래로 이동하는 경향이 있습니다.

FLOW-3D 시뮬레이션 결과

경쟁하는 부력과 항력은 아래 FLOW-3D 에서 얻은 시뮬레이션 결과에서 명확하게 볼 수 있습니다 . 그림 1은 부력 지배적 인 입자 분류의 경우를 보여줍니다. 더 큰 (빨간색) 입자는 수평 채널의 상단을 향해 정렬됩니다. Fig. 2에 나타난 결과는 부력이 우세한 경우의 유입 초 속도를 20 배로 설정 한 후 얻은 것이다. 더 높은 입구 속도에서 더 큰 입자는 더 많은 운동량을 전달하므로 그 위치는 수직 부력의 영향을받지 않습니다. 따라서 입자는 수평 채널의 상단으로 올라가지 않습니다. 대신 그들은 계속해서 바닥으로 이동합니다.

부력

Drag

LOW-3D 의 입자 모델은입자 분류 또는 기타 입자 역학과 관련된 미세 유체 시뮬레이션에 성공적이고 쉽게 사용할 수 있습니다. 지금까지 우리는 FLOW-3D 의 입자 모델을사용하여 두 가지 입자 분류 기술을 보았습니다. 하나는 유체 역학을 사용하고 다른 하나는 중력을 사용합니다.

Figure 4 A view of the ogee spillway and Type 2 piers in the 3D CFD model

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND THE REAL WORLD : IT LOOKS PRETTY BUT IS IT RIGHT?

D. K. H. Ho, S. M. Donohoo, K. M. Boyes and C. C. Lock
Advanced Analysis, Worley Pty Limited
L7, 116 Miller Street, North Sydney, NSW 2060 Australia
Tel: +61 2 8923 6817 e-mail: david.ho@worley.com.au

Abstract

엔지니어링 설계에서 유한 요소, 유한 차분 및 전산 유체 역학 분석 소프트웨어와 같은 수치 도구의 일상적인 사용이 최근 몇 년 동안 증가했습니다. 소프트웨어 및 하드웨어 기술의 발전은보다 비선형적이고 복잡한 3 차원 분석이 수행되고 있음을 의미합니다.

그러나 본질적으로 “블랙 박스”인 이러한 강력한 소프트웨어는 “컴퓨팅”기술을 보유하고 있지만 광범위한 엔지니어링 경험이 필요하지 않은 분석가의 손에 “컴퓨터 보조 재해”로 이어질 수 있습니다. 품질 보증 절차의 엄격한 구현은 수치 모델이나 분석 기법이 정확한지 확인할 필요가 없을 수 있습니다.

이 백서에서는 복잡성이 증가하는 세 가지 실제 토목 공학 응용 프로그램에서 수치 분석 결과를 검증하는 방법을 설명합니다. 여기에는 유한 요소법을 이용한 수조 탱크의 구조 해석, 전산 유체 역학법을 이용한 수력 구조물 위의 홍수 조사, 유한 차분법을 이용한 안벽 시공 시뮬레이션 등이 있습니다. 입력 데이터의 불확실성 수준과 각 사례에 대한 계산 결과의 신뢰성에 대해 논의합니다. 분석 과정에서 몇 가지 흥미로운 결과가 발견되었습니다.

첫 번째 사례 연구는 시공의 질이 구조물의 성능에 상당한 영향을 미친다는 것을 보여주었습니다. 그러나 설계자는 설계 단계에서 이러한 상황을 수량화하고 분석하지 못할 수도 있습니다. 필요할 경우 향후 역분석은 물론 설계 검증의 기준점이 될 수 있도록 공사 종료 시 모니터링의 중요성이 필수적입니다. 유한 요소 분석은 복잡한 문제를 분석할 수 있는 강력한 수치 도구이지만, 분석가들은 문제의 행동이 단순하고 잘 이해되는 것처럼 보일 수 있는 상황에서 예상치 못한 결과를 만날 수 있도록 준비해야 합니다.

두 번째 사례 연구에서는 중요한 배수로 구조에 전산 유체 역학 분석이 처음으로 적용 되었기 때문에 엄격한 검증 프로세스가 강조됩니다. 그것은 2D ogee 방수로 프로파일로 시작하여 문제의 방수로의 3D 모델을 분석하기 위해 진행되는 방식으로 수행되었습니다.
계산된 결과를 각 단계에서 이론 및 물리적 테스트 데이터와 비교했습니다. 유체 흐름 문제의 비선형적 특성에도 불구하고, 분석은 확신을 가지고 실제 설계 목적에 적합한 결과를 제공할 수 있었습니다.

최종 사례 연구에서는 안벽의 거동이 시공 이력과 매립 방식에 영향을 받은 것으로 나타났습니다. 벽의 움직임은 매우 가변적인 토양 속성에도 불구하고 질적으로도 단순한 비선형 토양 모델을 사용하여 정확하게 예측되었습니다. 지속적인 모니터링 기록이 없기 때문에 검증은 어려웠습니다. 계산된 결과를 검증하는 열쇠는 수치 소프트웨어 도구를 사용하지 않는 독립적인 계산을 찾는 것입니다. 대부분의 경우 이러한 솔루션을 사용할 수 있습니다. 그러나 다른 경우에는 실험실 또는 현장 관찰에만 의존할 수 있습니다.

Introduction

오늘날 수치 해석은 대부분의 엔지니어링 설계에서 필수적인 부분을 형성합니다. 따라서 결과 검증의 필요성은 분석 기술 / 방법론을 신뢰할 수 있고 설계자가 계산 된 결과에 대한 확신을 가질 수 있도록 설계 프로세스 전반에 걸쳐 매우 중요합니다.

일반적인 관행은 고전 이론, 실험 데이터, 게시 된 데이터, 유사한 구조의 성능 및 다른 사람이 수행 한 수치 계산에 대해 결과를 검증하는 것입니다. 때때로 소프트웨어 개발자가 제공 한 벤치 마크 또는 검증 예제가 이러한 목적으로 사용될 수 있지만 전체 범위의 문제를 포괄 할만큼 포괄적 인 경우는 거의 없습니다.

수치 해석을 시작하기 전에 분석가는 입력 데이터의 신뢰성, 소프트웨어 도구가 문제의 문제를 해결할 수 있는지 여부 및 결과를 검증하는 방법을 결정해야합니다. 검증 프로세스가 많은 실무자들에 의해 품질 보증 절차의 일부로 채택되었지만 비용이 많이 드는 실패가 여전히 발생했습니다 [1].

Validation

결과 검증의 필요성은 수치 분석의 사용 (남용)에서 일부 나쁜 업계 관행을 관찰함으로써 강화 될 수 있습니다. 수치 계산을 수행하기 위해 고용 된 일부 엔지니어 / 분석가는 계산 뒤에있는 기본 이론을 완전히 이해하지 못하거나 숨겨진 함정을 처리 할 수있는 실제 엔지니어링 경험이 충분하지 않을 수 있습니다.

일부 소프트웨어가 “CAD와 유사”해지고 많은 사람들이 작동하기 쉽다고 주장하기 때문에 엔지니어링 회사가 대학원 엔지니어 대신 초보를 고용하여 수치 모델링 및 분석을 수행하는 경향이 점차 증가하고 있습니다.

사용자는 복잡한 지오메트리 모델을 생성하고, 적절한 요소와 메시를 만들고, 각 하중 케이스에 대한 경계 조건 (접촉, 하중 및 고정)을 적용하고, 속성을 할당하고, 제출에 필요한 모든 플래그 / 스위치 / 버튼을 설정하는 데 상당한 노력을 기울일 것입니다.

분석이 실행됩니다. 자체 검사를위한 일부 품질 보증 절차는 전처리 단계에서 따를 수 있지만 계산이 완료되고 결과가 후 처리 될 때까지 많은 사용자는 출력이 어느 정도 정확하다고 쉽게 믿을 것입니다. 지오메트리 생성은 수치 모델링 프로세스의 일부일뿐입니다. 가장 어려운 문제 중 하나는 전체 설계 프로세스에서 불확실성을 다루는 것입니다. 재료 속성 및 로딩 순서와 같은 입력과 관련된 불확실성이 있습니다.

예를 들어 모델이 선형 또는 비선형 방식으로 동작하는지 여부와 같이 솔루션 유형의 적절성과 관련된 불확실성이 있습니다. 마지막으로 결과 해석과 관련된 불확실성이 있습니다. 수치 분석에서 결과를 검증하고 문제를 발견하는 데있어 분석가를위한 좋은 방법에 대한 간단한 지침은 없습니다. 그러나 다음 방법을 통해 점차적으로 달성 할 수 있습니다.

• 수치 적 방법 과정에 대한 좋은 이해 – 이것은 학부 및 / 또는 대학원 수준의 공식 교육을 통해 얻을 수 있으며 지속적인 전문성 개발의 일환으로 자습을 통해 더욱 향상 될 수 있습니다.
• 특정 유형의 문제에 대한 기본 이론과 해결책의 범위를 잘 이해합니다. 이 역시 위와 같은 교육을 통해 이루어질 수 있습니다.
• 실제 문제를 해결하는 데 공학적 판단을 사용하고 수치 분석을 수행 한 경험이 있습니다. 이는 숙련 된 엔지니어가 분석가를 적절하게 감독하는 환경에서 작업함으로써 얻을 수 있습니다.

품질 보증 시스템의 구현이 실행 가능한 솔루션으로 이어지는 엔지니어링 판단을 대체하는 것은 아니라는 점에 유의해야합니다. 복잡한 대규모 모델을 분석하기 전에 시뮬레이션 기술과 문제의 근본적인 동작을 완전히 이해하기 위해 간단한 테스트 모델을 사용하여 수치 “실험”을 수행해야하는 경우가 매우 많습니다.

경험에 따르면 때때로 테스트 모델 자체가 분석가가 최종 설계 솔루션에 도달 할 수있는 충분한 정보를 제공 할 수 있습니다. 해당 대형 복합 모델의 분석은 설계 기대치를 확인하는 것입니다. 다음 사례 연구는 결과 검증이 수행 된 방법과 신뢰 수준 및 불확실성이 해결된 방법을 보여줍니다.

Applications

일반적인 토목 공학 프로젝트에서 수치 분석은 구조 역학, 기하학 및 유체 역학의 세 가지 기본 분야 중 하나 또는 조합을 포함 할 수 있습니다. 문제의 성격은 토양-구조 상호 작용, 유체-구조 상호 작용 또는 토양-유체 상호 작용 중 하나로 분류 될 수 있습니다.

어떤 경우에는 세 가지 모두를 포함 할 수 있습니다. 잠재적 인 복잡성을 고려하여, 정확도를 잃지 않고 실제 목적을 위해 중요한 동작을 캡처하지 않고 문제를 단순화하기 위해 몇 가지 가정과 이상화가 이루어져야합니다. 이러한 문제를 해결할 수있는 범용 및 특수 수치 분석 소프트웨어가 있습니다. 두 가지 유형의 소프트웨어가 사례 연구에 사용되었습니다.

Case 1 – Deflection of a steel water tank

직경 약 90m의 대형 원형 강철 물 탱크는 처음 채울 때 큰 벽면이 휘어지면서 탱크의 장기적인 구조적 무결성에 대한 우려를 불러 일으켰습니다.

물의 높이는 전체 저장 용량에서 약 10m였습니다. 지붕 구조는 탱크 내부에있는 기둥으로 거의 전적으로지지되었습니다. 스트레이크(strakes)는 벽의 바닥 1/3이 더 두꺼운 고급 강판으로 구성되었습니다. 1 차 윈드 거더는 탱크 상단 주위에 용접되었고 2 차 윈드 거더는베이스 위 2/3에 위치했습니다. 하단 스트레이 크는 환형베이스 플레이트에 필렛 용접되었습니다. 내부 기둥의 기초를 제외한 전체 바닥은 용접 된 강판으로 덮여있었습니다.

이 탱크는 유능한 중간층 사암과 미사암 기반암 위에 압축된 채움물 위에 세워졌습니다. 일련의 축 대칭 유한 요소 분석 (FEA)을 수행하여 관찰된 처짐을 예측할 수 있는지 여부를 결정하고 매일 물을 채우고 비울 때 피로 파괴가 발생할 가능성으로 인해 벽 바닥의 응력 상태를 계산했습니다.

내부 기둥과 지붕 빔을 포함하는 탱크의 12 분의 1 섹터에 대한 3 차원 모델을 처음에 분석하여 벽이 얼마나 많은 지붕 자중을지지하고 축 대칭 가정의 타당성을 조사했는지 조사했습니다. 이 분석의 결과는 지붕 구조의 강성 기여도가 중요하지 않아 후속 축 대칭 모델에 포함되지 않았 음을 보여주었습니다.

그러나 지붕 자체 무게의 작은 부분이 벽에 적용됩니다. 축 대칭 모델은 모든 강철 섹션, 필렛 및 맞대기 용접 및 기초로 구성되었습니다 (그림 1). 그것들은 몇 개의 3 노드 삼각형 축 대칭 요소가있는 4 노드 비 호환 모드 사변형으로 이산화되었습니다.

용접 재료를 통해서만 하중 전달이 허용되도록 용접이 모델링되었습니다. 용접 연결부에 미세한 메시를 사용하여 응력 상태를 정확하게 포착했습니다. 롤러 지지대는 모델의 측면 및 하단 경계에 적용되었습니다. 다음과 같은 하중이 적용되었습니다 :

철골 구조물의 자중, 지붕 자중, 벽의 정수압, 수위에 따른 바닥의 균일 한 압력. 한 모델은 용접 또는베이스의 강판이 플라스틱 힌지를 형성하기 위해 항복되었다고 가정했습니다. 이 경우 벽 바닥에서 핀 연결이 모델링되었습니다.

그림2 Partial FE mesh of tank/foundation. Insert shows mesh and stress distribution at wall base

벽 처짐은 그림 2에 나와 있습니다. 측정 범위와 계산 된 결과는 비교 목적으로 표시됩니다. 계산 된 벽 처짐을 검증하기 위해 두 벽 두께에 대한 Timoshenko 및 Woinowsky-Krieger [2]에 기반한 고전 이론도 그림에 표시되었습니다. 계산 된 편향은 이론적 계산에 의해 제한됨을 관찰 할 수 있습니다.

벽 두께의 변화로 인한 전이가 분석에서 포착되었습니다. 이것은 유한 요소 모델에 대한 확신을 제공했습니다. 윈드 거더와 구속 된베이스의 영향도 볼 수 있습니다. 윈드 거더 설치로 인해 초기 변형이 발생하여 공사가 끝날 때 벽 상단이 안쪽으로 당겨질 수 있습니다. 굽힘 동작이 발생한베이스 근처를 제외하고는 후프 동작이 벽 동작을 지배했습니다.

계산된 최대 처짐이 측정된 순서와 동일하더라도 최대 돌출이 발생한 높이는 예측되지 않았습니다. 실제로 조사 데이터는 몇 가지 가능한 시나리오를 제안했습니다.베이스에 플라스틱 힌지 형성 (그러나이 영역에서 계산 된 응력은 항복 강도를 초과하지 않았습니다). 지반 재료의 국부적 인 베어링 고장 (다시 현장에서 균열과 같은 명백한 지시 신호가 보이지 않음); 또는 탱크 건설이 끝날 때 내장 된 기하학적 결함이있었습니다. 사전 변형 된 탱크에서 역 분석을 수행하여 측정 된 처짐이 정수압 하에서 “회복”되었습니다. 그러나 계산된 응력은 수율을 훨씬 초과했습니다. 불행히도 탱크는 완성 후 첫 번째 충전 전에 즉시 조사되지 않았습니다.

탱크의 원래 디자인과 건설이 2000 년대 초에 수행되었다는 점은 흥미 롭습니다. 설계 계산에 관련 표준 [3]을 사용했습니다. 이 표준은 탱크 벽이 후프 동작만으로 작용한다고 가정하고이 구조의 경우가 아닌베이스의 제약 조건을 무시합니다. 벽 처짐의 크기는 기초 강성을 고려한 Rish [4]가 개발 한 고전 이론 [2] 또는 FEA와 같은 수치 분석에 의해 결정될 수 있습니다. 고급 강철을 사용하면 설계자는 강도에는 적합하지만 서비스 가능성에는 필요하지 않은 더 얇은 섹션을 선택해야합니다. 굽힘 강성은 큐브 두께에 의해 결정됩니다. 수중 부하에서 후속 벽 변형 프로파일은 제작 품질에 영향을받습니다. 이것은 설계 단계에서 추정하기 어려웠을 것입니다.

사례 2 – 배수로 배출

호주의 많은 댐 구조는 제한된 수 문학적 정보로 1950 년대와 60 년대에 설계 및 건설되었습니다. 이러한 기존 방수로 구조는 수정 된 가능한 최대 홍수 수준에 대처하기 위해 크기가 작습니다. 증가 된 홍수 조건 하에서 방수로 꼭대기에 대한 음압 생성과 같은 잠재적 인 문제가 발생할 수 있습니다. 이는 방수로 및 게이트 구조에 불안정성 또는 캐비테이션 손상을 유발할 수 있습니다. 역사적으로 스케일링 된 물리적 모델은 이러한 동작을 연구하기 위해 수력 학 실험실에서 구성되었지만 비용이 많이 들고 시간이 많이 걸리며 스케일링 효과와 관련된 많은 어려움이 있습니다. 오늘날 고성능 컴퓨터와보다 효율적인 전산 유체 역학 (CFD) 코드를 사용하여 수리적 구조의 동작을 합리적인 시간과 비용으로 수치 적으로 조사 할 수 있습니다. 이 분석 기법은 대도시 지역에 주요 상수원을 제공하는 가장 큰 콘크리트 중력 댐에 호주에서 처음으로 적용 되었기 때문에 검증을 수행 할 필요가있었습니다. 이것은 그림 3과 같이 조사 프로세스에 통합되었습니다. 순서도는 간단한 2D에서 상세한 3D 방수로 모델로 어떻게 발전했는지 보여줍니다.

Figure 3 Flowchart showing the validation process

미 육군 공병대 [5]에서 발표 한 광범위한 데이터가 있기 때문에 검증을 위해 ogee 방수로 프로필 (그림 4 참조)이 선택되었습니다. 계산 된 결과는 조사의 각 단계에서 검토되었습니다. 게시 된 데이터에서 크게 벗어나면 프로젝트가 중단됩니다. 이것은 프로젝트가 시작되기 전에 고객과 상호 합의되었습니다.

이러한 종류의 분석의 초기 어려움 중 하나는 개방 채널 중력 흐름 문제에서 자유 표면의 정확한 계산이었습니다. 자유 표면을 추적하는 데 적응 형 메싱 및 반복 방법을 사용하는 것은 일부 유한 체적 CFD 코드에서 사용되었지만 성공은 제한적이었습니다. 본 연구에 사용 된 코드는 SOLA-VOF 방법으로 Navier-Stokes 방정식을 해결합니다. 유체 운동의 과도 동작을 해결하기 위해 유한 차분 방법이 사용되었습니다. 유체의 부피 (VOF) 함수는 자유 표면 운동을 계산하는 데 사용됩니다 [6].

분석에 대한 자세한 내용은 [7]에 설명되어 있습니다. 계산 된 파고 압력 분포, 자유 표면 프로파일 및 정상 상태에서의 배출 속도는 검증 목적으로 사용되었습니다. 다른 상류 수두 (H) 아래의 배수로 꼭대기를 따라 압력 분포가 그림 5에 나와 있습니다. 일부 압력 진동은 코드가 일반 메시와 곡선 배수로 장애물 사이의 인터페이스에서 계산을 처리하는 방식에 기인 할 수 있습니다. 훨씬 더 미세한 메쉬는 이러한 불규칙성을 부드럽게 만들었습니다. 압력 분포에 대한 교각의 영향은 3D 모델에서 올바르게 예측되었습니다 (그림 6).

계산된 자유 표면 프로파일 (그림 7)도 게시 된 데이터와 잘 일치했습니다. Savage와 Johnson [8]은 분석 기법에 대한 신뢰도를 높이는 동일한 CFD 코드를 사용하여 유사한 유효성 검사를 수행했습니다. 문제의 배수로에 대한 후속 분석은 스케일링 된 물리적 모델 테스트에서 얻은 결과와 비교할 때 상당히 좋은 결과를 제공했습니다.

Figure 5 Comparison of crest pressure for various heads (2D model), Hd is the design head

Figure 6 Comparison of crest pressure next to pier (3D model)

Figure 7 Upper nappe profile next to pier

분석에서 배수로의 기하학적 구조와 물 속성이 잘 정의되었습니다. 물은 비압축성이며 고정 된 온도에서 일정한 특성을 가지고 있다고 가정했습니다. 실제로 좋은 품질의 콘크리트 표면 마감을 얻을 수 있기 때문에 배수로 경계는 매끄럽다 고 가정했습니다. 불확실성은 메쉬 밀도와 적절한 난류 모델의 선택이라는 두 가지 소스에서 비롯됩니다. 메쉬 크기는 메모리 양과 컴퓨터의 클럭 속도에 의해 제한됩니다.

높은 레이놀즈 수의 난류 흐름은 소용돌이와 소용돌이의 형성을 포착 할 수있는 매우 미세한 메시로 계산할 수 있지만 현재 메시 밀도는 검증 및 설계 목적에 필요한 변수를 예측하기에 충분히 미세했습니다. 조사 결과는 큰 와류, k-ε 및 RNG 모델과 같은 난류 모델의 선택에 의해 크게 영향을받지 않는 것으로 나타났습니다. 분명히 벽 거칠기와 난류 모델의 도입은 방전율을 감소시킬 것입니다. 그러나 다시 분석 결과는 사용 된 메시에 거의 영향을 미치지 않음을 보여줍니다. 향후 분석은 다른 메쉬 밀도로 인한 이산화 오류를 조사 할 것입니다.

사례 3 – 안벽 건설
주요 컨테이너 항구 시설은 설계 단계에서 최소한의 수치 분석을 수행하여 약 25 년 전에 건설되었습니다. 당시에는 이러한 분석 도구를 사용하는 것이 비용 효율적이지 않은 것으로 간주되었습니다. 다수의 컨테이너 크레인이 측면을 따라 이어지는 2km 길이의 안벽을 건설하기 위해 광범위한 준설 및 매립 작업이 수행되었습니다.

시설이 완공 된 이후 일련의 콘크리트 카운터 포트 유닛으로 구성된 안벽과 후방 크레인 빔은 크레인이 할 수 있도록 후방 빔에 대한 레벨 조정 작업이 수행 될 정도로 지속적으로 이동하고 있습니다. 정상적으로 작동합니다. 그러나 영향을받는 두 구조물의 움직임을 저지하기 위해보다 영구적 인 해결책을 모색했습니다. 토양-구조 상호 작용 및 시공 시뮬레이션을 처리 할 수있는 명시 적 유한 차이 분석을 사용하여 다양한 교정 옵션의 순위를 지정했습니다.

그라우트 기둥, 타이백 앵커 및 말뚝 지지대와 같은 다양한 제안 된 개선을 분석하기 전에, 토양 및 구조적 특성과 시공 과정의 선택이 적절하도록 계산 모델을 관찰에 대해 보정해야한다고 결정했습니다. 지질 및 지질 공학 정보는 현장 및 실험실 테스트 데이터를 포함하는 현장 조사 보고서에서 평가되었습니다. 시설의 범위를 고려할 때 현장에서 만나는 특정 토양 유형에 대해 상당한 분산 테스트 데이터가 예상됩니다. 수력 모래 충전재에 대한 표준 침투 테스트 (SPT) 블로우 횟수 (N) 및 콘 침투 테스트 (CPT) 저항 (qc)에 대한 몇 가지 일반적인 기록이 그림 8과 9에 나와 있습니다.

이 결과로부터 평균 해수면 위와 아래에있는 모래 채우기의 강도와 강성의 대비를 관찰 할 수 있습니다. 이 현상은 배치 방법에 기인한다고 제안되었다 [9]. 또한 기초 수준에서 진동 압축 된 모래의 특성에도 변동이있었습니다. 분석을 위해 선택된 토양 특성은 테스트 데이터, 인근 사이트의 경험 및 유사한 토양 조건에 대한 발표 된 데이터를 기반으로합니다. 그것들은 표 1에 요약되어 있습니다. 일반적으로 시설의 건설 순서는 다음과 같습니다.

Removal of pockets of soft marine clay by dredging
Dredging of sand to the required level
Vibro-compaction of the sand on which the counterfort units were to be founded
Placement of gravel for the quay wall foundation.
Placement of concrete counterfort units weighing 360 tonne each
Placement of hydraulic sand fill behind the units
Surcharging the fill just behind the capping beam
Construct capping beam and place more sand fill to the finished level
Additional surcharge prior to the operation of container cranes.

Table 1 Soil properties used in the construction
simulation of the quay wall

2D 평면 변형 모델의 수치 시뮬레이션에서 구성 순서 (그림 10)와 하중은 다음 단계에 따라 단순화 / 이상적입니다.

The starting condition of the seabed consisted of the vibrocompacted sand, gravel bed, native sand, clay and fissured clay at depth. The “in-situ” stresses were also switched on in this step.
Placement of counterfort unit (using equivalent linear elastic beam elements) with a vertical force applied through the centre of gravity of the unit to represent the buoyant self-weight.
Sequentially placing hydraulic sand fill behind the unit to the level prior to surcharging.
Apply an equivalent trapezoidal pressure to represent the surcharge.
Placement of capping beam and the sand fill to the required level.
Apply additional surcharge.
Application of repeated loads from the crane seaward and landward legs.

분석에서는 침수 된 물질과 평균 해수면 위에있는 물질을 나타 내기 위해 적절한 밀도를 사용했습니다. 안벽의 장기적인 움직임이 중요했기 때문에 배수 된 토양 매개 변수가 사용되었습니다. 토양은 분석에서 Mohr-Coulomb 실패 기준을 따르는 것으로 가정되었습니다. 단순한 탄성-완전 소성 응력-변형 거동이 가정되었습니다. 일련의 강체 다이어그램으로 표현 된 안벽 이동의 역사는 그림 11에 나와 있습니다. 벽의 상단과 바닥에서 계산 된 수직 및 수평 이동은 그림 12와 13에 표시됩니다. 수치는 모니터링 된 데이터와 해당 상한 및 하한 (해당 상자에 표시됨)입니다. 측정에서 산란의 양에도 불구하고 벽 건설에 대해 계산 된 움직임은 합리적으로 잘 비교되었습니다. 조사 데이터와 예측을 일치시키기 위해 분석에서 토양 속성을 변경하려는 시도가 없었습니다. 반복되는 크레인 하중의 래칫 효과를 관찰 할 수 있습니다. 불행히도 반복적 인 크레인 하중 하에서 벽 이동에 대한 기준이 없었기 때문에 이러한 예상 이동을 비교할 수 없었습니다. 문제의 복잡성과 고도로 가변적 인 토양 특성을 고려할 때 계산 된 결과는 매우 고무적입니다.

토양에서 플라스틱 구역의 발달도 분석에서 계산되었습니다. 벽의 발가락 아래의 토양이 여러 번 과도하게 압박을받는 것으로 밝혀졌습니다. 접촉 압력은 경사 하중으로 인한 베어링 고장에 대한 안전 지표 (FOS)를 결정하는 데 사용되었습니다. 지지력은 계산 방법에 의해 크게 영향을 받았다고보고되었습니다 [10]. 원래의 기초 디자인은 덴마크 코드 [11]를 기반으로했기 때문에이 경우 일관성을 위해 사용되었습니다. 편심의 함수로서 FOS의 발전과 수평 대 수직 추력 (H / V)의 비율이 각각 그림 14와 15에 나와 있습니다.

그림은 벽이 추가 요금과 반복적 인 적재 단계 동안 국부적 인 베어링 고장에 가까웠음을 보여줍니다. 크레인 하중 하에서 FOS의 명백한 증가는 벽에 대한 수직 하중이 증가하는 반면 유지된 토양의 수평 압력이 다소 일정하게 유지됨에 따라 편심이 감소했기 때문입니다.

끝 맺는 말
세 가지 매우 다른 실제 응용 프로그램의 유효성 검사 프로세스가 설명되었습니다. 각 사례의 주요 특징과 결과는 표 2에 요약되어 있습니다. 재료 및 하중 불확도 및 예상 결과가 강조 표시됩니다. 건설 품질은 구조의 성능에 상당한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났습니다.

이는 분석가가 프로젝트의 설계 단계에서 정량화하고 정확하게 분석하지 못할 수도 있습니다. 구조가 완료된 직후 모니터링의 중요성을 간과해서는 안됩니다. 이것은 미래의 역 분석을위한 유용한 자료가 될 것입니다. 수치 도구가 이러한 복잡한 문제를 분석 할 수 있다는 사실에도 불구하고 분석가는 어떤 매개 변수가 중요하거나 중요하지 않은지 식별 할 준비가되어 있어야합니다.

익숙하지 않은 문제를 분석 할 때 유효성 검사 프로세스를 점진적으로 수행해야합니다. 아마도 검증 방법을 찾는 핵심은 수치 분석 도구를 사용하지 않고 솔루션에 도달 할 수있는 다른 방법이 있는지 묻는 것입니다. 많은 경우 이러한 솔루션은 광범위한 문헌 검색 후에 존재합니다. 그러나 다른 경우에는 실험실 테스트와 현장 관찰이 유일한 대안이 될 것입니다.

자세한 내용은 원문을 참고하시기 바랍니다.

References
[1] Puri, S.P.S. (1998) “Avoiding Engineering Failures Caused by Computer-Related Errors”, J. Comp. in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 12(4), 170-172.
[2] Timoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S. (1959) Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha. p.580.
[3] BS2654 (1989) Manufacturing of vertical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks with butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry.
[4] Rish, R.F. (1977) “Design of Cylindrical Tanks on Elastic Foundations”, Civil Engineering Transactions, The Institution of Engineers, Australia, 192-195.
[5] US Army Corps of Engineers (1990) Hydraulic Design of Spillways, Engineer Manual No. 1110-2-1603.
[6] Hirt, C.W. and Nichols, B.D. (1981) “Volume of Fluid (VOF) Method for the Dynamics of Free Boundaries”, J. Comp. Phys. 39, 201- 225.
[7] Ho, D.K.H., Boyes, K.M and Donohoo, S.M. (2001) “Investigation of Spillway Behaviour under Increased Maximum Flood by Computational Fluid Dynamics Technique”, Proc. Conf. 14th Australasian Fluid Mechanics, Adelaide, December, 577-580.
[8] Savage, B.M. and Johnson, M.C. (2001) “Flow over Ogee Spillway: Physical and Numerical Model Case Study”, J. Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 127(8), 640-649.
[9] Lee, K.M., Shen, C.K., Leung, D.H.K. and Mitchell, J.K. (1999) “Effects of placement method on geotechnical behaviour of hydraulic fill sands” J. Geotech. and Geoenviron. Engineering, ASCE, 125(10), 832-846.
[10] Sieffert, J.G. and Bay-Gress, Ch. (2000) “Comparison of European bearing capacity calculation methods for shallow foundations”, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Engineering, 143, April, 65-74.
[11] DS 415 (1984) Code of Practice for Foundation Engineering. Table 2 Summary of findings for the three case studies

FLOW-3D 튜토리얼 V12

빠른 시작

이 튜토리얼 매뉴얼은 FLOW-3D 를 처음 사용하는 사용자에게 그래픽 사용자 인터페이스(GUI)의 주요 구성 요소를 쉽게 익히도록 하고, 다양한 시뮬레이션의 설정 및 실행 방법을 안내하기 위한 것입니다.

이 매뉴얼에 있는 실습과정은 FLOW-3D의 기본 사항을 다루기 위한 것입니다. 이 매뉴얼에서 제시하는 문제는 다양한 주제를 설명하고, 발생할 수 있는 많은 질문을 해결하기 위해 선정되었습니다. 이 매뉴얼의 실습과정은 FLOW-3D를 실행하는 컴퓨터에 앉아 사용하는 것이 가장 좋습니다.

CFD 사용 철학에 대한 간단한 섹션 다음에는 중요 파일과 시뮬레이션 파일을 실행하는 방법이 소개되어 있습니다. 이 소개 섹션 다음에는 모델 설정, 시뮬레이션 실행 및 포스트 프로세스, Simulation Manager 탐색 방법에 대한 설명이 있습니다. 이러한 각 단계에 대한 자세한 내용은 모델 설정, 컴퓨팅 결과 및 후처리 장에서 확인할 수 있습니다.

1.CFD 사용에 대한 철학

CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)는 유체 흐름(질량, 운동량 및 에너지 보존)에 대한 지배 방정식의 컴퓨터 솔루션입니다. 지정된 지배방정식은 이론 장에 설명된 Numerical방법을 사용하여 이산화되고 계산됩니다.

CFD 소프트웨어를 사용하는 것은 여러 면에서 실험을 설정하는 것과 유사합니다. 실제 상황을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 실험을 올바르게 설정하지 않으면, 그 결과는 실제 상황을 반영하지 않습니다. 같은 방법으로 수치 모델이 실제 상황을 정확하게 나타내지 않으면, 그 결과는 실제 상황을 반영하지 않습니다. 사용자는 어떤 것이 중요한지, 어떻게 표현해야 하는지를 결정해야 합니다. 시작하기 전에 다음과 같은 질문을 하는 것이 중요합니다.

CFD 계산에서 무엇을 알고 싶습니까?
중요한 현상을 포착하기 위해 규모와 Mesh는 어떻게 설계되어야 하는가?
실제 물리적 상황을 가장 잘 나타내는 경계 조건은 무엇입니까?
어떤 종류의 유체를 사용해야합니까?
이 문제에 어떤 유체 특성이 중요합니까?
다른 어떤 물리적 현상이 중요합니까?
초기 유체 상태는 어떻게 됩니까?
어떤 단위 시스템을 사용해야합니까?

모델링 되는 문제가 실제 상황을 가능한 한 유사하게 나타내는지 확인하는 것이 중요합니다. 사용자는 복잡한 시뮬레이션 작업을 해결 가능한 부분으로 나누는 것이 좋습니다.

복잡한 물리 효과를 추가하기 전에, 간단하고 쉽게 이해할 수 있는 근사값으로 점차적으로 시작하여 프로세스 진행하십시오. 간단한 손 계산(베르누이 방정식, 에너지 균형, 파동
전파, 경계층 성장 등)은 물리 및 매개 변수를 선택하는데 도움이 되고, 결과와 비교할 수 있는 점검항목을 제공합니다.

CFD의 장단점을 이해하면 분석을 진행하는데 도움이 될 수 있습니다. CFD는 다음과 같은 경우 탁월한 분석 옵션입니다.

기하 구조, 물리학 또는 필요한 상세 수준으로 인해 표준 엔지니어링 계산이 유용하지 않은 경우가 많습니다.
실제 실험은 비용이 많이 소요됩니다.
실험에서 수집할 수 있는 것보다 유체흐름에 대한 자세한 정보가 필요한 경우 유용합니다.
위험하거나 적대적인 조건, 확장이 잘되지 않는 프로세스 등으로 인해 정확한 실험 측정을 하기가 어려운 경우
복잡한 흐름 정보에 대한 커뮤니케이션

CFD는 다음과 같은 경우에 덜 효과적입니다.

솔루션이 계산 리소스가 매우 많이 소요되거나, 도메인 크기를 줄이기 위한 가정 또는 해결되지 않은 물리적 현상을 설명하기 위한 반 임계 모델이 필요한 경우
CFD 시뮬레이션에 대한 입력이 되는 중요한 물리적 현상이 알려지지 않은 경우
물리적 현상이 잘 이해되지 않거나 매우 복잡한 경우

CFD를 사용할 때 명심해야 할 몇 가지 중요한 참고 사항이 있습니다.

CFD는 규정된 초기 및 경계 조건에 따라 지정된 지배 방정식의 수치해석 솔루션입니다. 따라서 모델 설정, 즉 어떤 방정식을 풀어야 하는지, 재료 특성, 초기 조건 및 경계 조건이, 가능한 한 물리적 상황과 최대한 일치해야 합니다.
방정식의 수치 해는 일반적으로 어떤 종류의 근사치를 필요로 합니다. 물리적 모델에 대한 가정과 해결방법을 검토한 후 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.
디지털 컴퓨터는 숫자가 유한 정밀도로 이진수로 표시되는 방식으로 인해 반올림 오류가 발생합니다. 이는 문제를 악화시키기 때문에 매우 근소한 숫자의 차이를 계산해야 하는 상황을 피하십시오. 이러한 상황의 예는 시뮬레이션 도메인이 원점에서 멀리 떨어져 있을 때입니다.

2.중요한 파일

FLOW-3D 시뮬레이션과 관련된 많은 파일이 있습니다. 가장 중요한 것들이 아래에 설명되어 있습니다. 모든 prepin.* 파일의 명칭에서 prepin는 파일 형식을 의미하며, 별표시* 위치는 시뮬레이션 이름을 의미합니다. (예 : prepin.example_simulation.)

·prepin.*: 시뮬레이션용 입력 파일입니다. 시뮬레이션 설정을 설명하는 모든 입력 변수가 포함되어 있습니다.
·prpgrf.*: 이것은 전 처리기 출력 파일입니다. 여기에는 계산된 초기 조건이 포함되며 시뮬레이션을 실행하기 전에 설정을 확인하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.
·flsgrf.*: 솔버 출력 파일입니다. 시뮬레이션의 최종 결과가 포함됩니다.
·prperr.*, report.*, prpout.*: 이 파일들은 Preprocessor Diagnostic Files.
·hd3err.*, hd3msg.*, hd3out.*: 이 파일들은 Solver Diagnostic Files.

모든 시뮬레이션 파일은 단일 폴더에 함께 유지하므로, 설명이 될 수 있는 시뮬레이션 이름을 사용하는 것이 좋습니다. 그러나 매우 긴 파일 이름은 운영 체제에 따라 문제가 될 수 있습니다.

노트

시뮬레이션 이름이 inp(즉, 입력 파일이 있다면 prepin.inp) 출력 및 진단 파일은 모두 .dat이름을 갖습니다. 예: flsgrf.dat.
모든 입력 파일은 네트워크 위치의 컴퓨터 대신 로컬 디렉토리에 저장하는 것이 좋습니다. 이것은 솔버가 더 빠르게 실행되고 GUI의 응답 속도가 빨라지며 실행중인 시뮬레이션을 방해하는 네트워크 문제 가능성을 제거합니다.

3.시뮬레이션 관리자

FLOW-3D 시뮬레이션 관리자의 탭은 주로 시뮬레이션을 실행할 수 있도록 시뮬레이션 환경을 구성하고 실행 시뮬레이션에 대한 상태 정보를 표시하는데 사용됩니다.

작업 공간 (Workspaces)

작업 공간(Workspaces)은 Simulation Manager의 필수 부분이며 파일을 FLOW-3D에서 처리하는 방식입니다. 기본적으로 시뮬레이션을 포함하고 구성하는 폴더입니다. 몇 가지 예를 들면 시뮬레이션과 또 다른 작업 공간인 검증 사례를 포함하도록 할 수 있습니다:

새로운 작업 공간 만들기

이 튜토리얼에서는 작성하려는 시뮬레이션을 포함할 작업 공간(Workspaces)을 작성하십시오.

1.File -> New workspace로 이동

2.작업 공간 이름으로 Tutorial를 입력하십시오.

3.기본 위치는 현재 사용자의 홈 디렉토리에 있습니다. 다른 곳에서 찾을 수 있지만 기본 위치가 우리의 목적에 적합합니다.

4.하위 디렉토리를 사용하여 작업 공간 이름 만들기 확인란을 선택합니다. 이렇게 하면 파일 시스템에서 작업 공간에 대한 새로운 하위 디렉토리가 만들어져 시뮬레이션 파일을 훨씬 쉽게 구성할 수 있습니다.

5.확인을 눌러 새 작업 공간을 작성하십시오. 이제 포트폴리오에 표시됩니다.

작업 공간 닫기

포트폴리오를 정리하고 탐색하기 쉽도록 필요 없는 작업공간을 닫는 것이 편리합니다. 작업 공간을 닫으면 포트폴리오에서 해당 작업 공간만 제거됩니다. 그러나, 컴퓨터에서 작업 공간을 삭제하지는 않습니다.

작업 공간을 닫으려면

1.기존 작업 공간을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 작업 Close Workspace를 선택하십시오. 또는 포트폴리오에서 작업 공간을 선택 (왼쪽 클릭) 하고 Delete 키를 누를 수 있습니다.

2.작업 공간을 닫을 것인지 묻는 메세지가 표시됩니다. 예를 선택하십시오.

3.포트폴리오는 더 이상 닫힌 작업 공간을 포함하지 않습니다.

기존 작업 공간 열기

오래된 작업 공간을 열어야 할 때가 있을 것입니다. 예를 들어, 새 프로젝트에 유사한 시뮬레이션을 작성하기 전에 기존 시뮬레이션의 설정을 검토할 수 있습니다. 기존 작업 공간을 열려면

1.File -> Open Workspace…를 선택하십시오

2.작업 공간 파일이 있는 디렉토리를 찾으십시오. Tutorial.FLOW-3D_Workspace.

3.작업 공간을 로드 하려면 OK을 누르십시오.

작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션 작업

작업 공간을 사용하는 방법을 알았으니, 여기에 시뮬레이션을 추가해 봅시다.

Example를 추가하십시오

작업 공간에 작업 시뮬레이션을 추가하는 가장 간단한 방법은 포함된 예제 시뮬레이션 중 하나를 추가하는 것입니다. FLOW-3D의 다양한 기능을 사용하는
방법을 보여주기 위해 설계된 간단하고 빠른 시뮬레이션입니다. 기존 작업 공간에 예제를 추가하려면 다음을 수행하십시오.

1.포트폴리오에서 원하는 작업 공간을 강조 표시하십시오

2.File -> Add example…을 선택하십시오. 또는 작업공간을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 예제 추가…를 선택할 수 있습니다.

3.예제 대화 상자에서 예제를 선택하고 열기를 누르십시오. 자연 대류(Natural Convection) 예제를 선택했습니다.

4.새 시뮬레이션 대화 상자가 열립니다.

5.디렉토리가 작업 공간 위치에 있는지 확인하는 것이 좋으므로 기본 시뮬레이션 이름과 위치를 잘 확인하는 것이 좋습니다. FLOW-3D는 모든 시뮬레이션 파일을 이 작업 공간 디렉토리의 별도 하위 디렉토리에 배치하여 파일 구성을 쉽게 만들어 줍니다.

6.시뮬레이션을 위한 단위 시스템을 선택하십시오. 표준 단위 시스템이 권장되지만 각 단위를 독립적으로 선택하기 위해 사용자 지정 단위 시스템을 선택할 수 있습니다.

7.확인을 눌러 새 시뮬레이션을 작업 공간에 추가하십시오.

작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션 제거

작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 제거해야 하는 경우가 있습니다 (이는 작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 제거만 하며, 컴퓨터에서 시뮬레이션을 삭제하지는 않습니다). 작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 제거하려면 다음을 수행하십시오.

1.작업 공간에서 기존 시뮬레이션을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 (이 경우 이전 섹션에서 추가 한 예제 사용) 시뮬레이션 제거를 선택하십시오. 또는 작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 선택 (왼쪽 클릭)하고 Delete 키를 누를 수 있습니다.

2.작업 공간에는 더 이상 시뮬레이션이 포함되지 않습니다.

모든 작업 공간 및 디스크에서 시뮬레이션 삭제

작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 제거하는 것 외에도 디스크에서 모든 시뮬레이션 파일을 삭제해야 할 수도 있습니다. 작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 제거하고 디스크에서 시뮬레이션
파일을 삭제하려면 다음을 수행하십시오.

1.작업 공간에서 기존 시뮬레이션을 마우스 오른쪽 단추로 클릭하고 (이 경우 이전 섹션에서 추가 한 예제 사용) 모든 작업 공간 및 디스크에서 시뮬레이션
삭제를 선택하십시오.

2.시뮬레이션 디렉토리에서 삭제할 파일을 선택할 수 있는 창이 나타납니다. 삭제할 파일을 선택한 다음 확인을 눌러 해당 파일을 삭제하거나 취소를 눌러 작업을 중단하십시오.

3.OK를 선택한 경우 선택한 작업 공간은 더 이상 시뮬레이션을 포함하지 않습니다. 선택한 작업 공간의 모든 시뮬레이션 파일은 디렉토리에서 삭제됩니다.

경고

이 작업은 취소할 수 없으므로 계속하기 확인 후 파일을 삭제해야 합니다.

작업 공간에 기존 시뮬레이션 추가

기존 시뮬레이션을 작업 공간에 추가하려면 다음을 수행하십시오.

1.열린 작업 공간을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 기존 시뮬레이션 추가…를 선택합니다. 작업 공간을 선택한 다음 File->Add Existing Simulation… 을 선택할 수도 있습니다.

2.prepin.*파일 위치로 이동하여 열기를 선택하십시오.

3.시뮬레이션이 이제 작업 공간에 나타납니다.

작업 공간에 새로운 시뮬레이션 추가

대부분의 경우 기존 시뮬레이션을 사용하는 대신 새 시뮬레이션을 작성하게 됩니다. 작업 공간에 새로운 시뮬레이션을 추가하려면:

1.기존 작업 공간을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 새 시뮬레이션 추가…를 선택하십시오.

2.시뮬레이션 이름을 입력하라는 message가 표시됩니다. 이 예제에서는 heat transfer example 불러오십시오.

3.그런 다음 드롭다운 목록을 사용하여 시뮬레이션을 위한 단위 시스템을 결정합니다. 사용 가능한 옵션은 질량, 길이, 시간, 전기요금
각각 g, cm, s, coul기준의 Kg, m, s, CGS입니다. 또한 엔지니어링 단위도 사용할 수 있으며, slug, ft, s의 기초 단위가 있지만, 전기
충전을 위한 단위는 없습니다. 이러한 옵션 중 어느 것도 해당되지 않는 경우, 질량, 길이, 시간 및 전기요금에 대한 기준 등을 사용자 정의하여 사용자 지정 단위 시스템을 사용할 수 있습니다.

4.온도 단위는 드롭다운 목록을 사용하여 지정해야 합니다. 사용 가능한 옵션은 SI 및 CGS 단위의 경우 Celsius 및
Kelvin, 엔지니어링 단위의 경우 Fahrenheit 및 Rankine입니다. Custom units(사용자 정의 단위) 옵션을 선택한 경우, 사용 가능한 온도 단위는 질량
및 길이에 대해 선택한 기본 단위에 따라 변경됩니다.

노트

새 시뮬레이션의 시뮬레이션 단위는 신중하게 선택하십시오. 일단 설정하면 단위를 변경할 수 없습니다.

5.이 시뮬레이션에 사용된 템플릿이 기본 템플릿이 됩니다. 템플릿은 포함된 설정을 새 시뮬레이션에 적용하는 저장된 값 세트입니다. 다른 템플릿을 사용해야하는 경우
찾아보기 아이콘 ( )을 클릭하여 사용 가능한 템플릿 목록에서 선택하십시오.

6.기본 시뮬레이션 이름과 위치는 디렉토리가 작업 공간 위치에 있는지 확인하는 것이 좋습니다. FLOW-3D는 모든 시뮬레이션 파일을 이 작업 공간 디렉토리의 별도 하위 디렉토리에 배치하여 파일 구성을 훨씬 쉽게 만듭니다. 시뮬레이션을 다른 위치에 저장하려면 찾아보기 아이콘 ( )을 사용하여 원하는 위치로 이동하십시오.

7.확인을 클릭하여 작업 공간에 새 시뮬레이션을 추가하십시오.

heat transfer example

다른 옵션

우리는 지금 이러한 옵션을 사용하지 않는 동안, 이 시뮬레이션을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하여 추가 옵션에 대한 액세스를 제공합니다.

일반적으로 사용되는 Add Simulation Copy… 그리고 Add Restart Simulation…을 추가합니다. 첫 번째 옵션은 기존 시뮬레이션의 사본을
작성하고, 두 번째 옵션은 기존 시뮬레이션을 복사하고 원래 시뮬레이션의 결과를 다시 시작 시뮬레이션의 초기 조건으로 사용하도록 다시 시작 옵션을 구성합니다.

추가 정보

재시작 시뮬레이션에 대한 자세한 내용은 도움말에서 모델 설정 장의 재시작 섹션을 참조하십시오.

전처리 및 시뮬레이션 실행

시뮬레이션 전처리

시뮬레이션 전처리는 초기 조건을 계산하고 입력 파일에서 일부 진단 테스트를 실행합니다. 문제가 올바르게 구성되었는지 확인하거나 전 처리기의 진단 정보가 필요한 경우에
유용합니다. 시뮬레이션을 실행하기 전에 전처리할 필요가 없습니다. 시뮬레이션을 전처리 하려면

1.작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 Preprocess Simulation->Local을 선택합니다. 이 경우 입력 파일 heat transfer example이 아직 완전히 정의되지 않았으므로 작업 공간에서 예제 문제를 선택하십시오.

2.전처리 프로세스가 시작되고 Simulation Manager 하단의 텍스트 창에 일부 정보가 인쇄된 후 성공적으로 완료됩니다. 포트폴리오에서 시뮬레이션 이름 옆의 아이콘도 시뮬레이션이 성공적으로 처리되었음을 나타내도록 변경됩니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 도움말의 컴퓨팅 결과 장의 전처리 섹션을 참조하십시오.

시뮬레이션 실행

시뮬레이션을 실행하면 입력 파일에 정의된 문제에 대한 지배 방정식(물리적 모델, 형상, 초기 조건, 경계 조건 등)이 해석됩니다. 시뮬레이션을 실행하려면

1.작업 공간에서 시뮬레이션을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 Run Simulation->Local을 선택하십시오. 이 경우 입력 파일 heat transfer example이 아직 완전히
정의되지 않았으므로 작업 공간에서 예제 문제를 선택하십시오.

2.솔버가 시작되고 시뮬레이션 관리자 하단의 텍스트 창에 일부 정보가 인쇄되고 플롯이 업데이트 된 후 성공적으로 완료됩니다. 포트폴리오에서 시뮬레이션 이름 옆의
아이콘도 시뮬레이션이 성공적으로 실행되었음을 나타내도록 변경됩니다. 또한 솔버가 실행되는 동안 큐에 시뮬레이션이 나타나는 것을 볼 수 있으며, 완료되면 사라집니다.

추가 정보

시뮬레이션 실행 및 진단 읽기에 대한 자세한 내용은 도움말의 컴퓨팅 결과 장에서 솔버 실행 섹션을 참조하십시오.

작업 공간에서 모든 시뮬레이션 실행

작업 공간을 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 Simulate Workspace->Local을 선택하여 작업 공간에서 모든 시뮬레이션을 실행할 수도 있습니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 컴퓨팅 결과 장에서 솔버 실행 섹션을 참조하십시오.

대기열

사전 처리 또는 실행에 작업이 제출되면 큐의 맨 아래에 시뮬레이션이 자동으로 추가됩니다. 그런 다음 솔버에 사용 가능한 라이센스 및 계산 리소스가 있으면 시뮬레이션이 사전 처리되거나 실행됩니다. 대기열에 있지만 아직 전처리 또는 실행되지 않은 시뮬레이션은 대기열 맨 아래의 컨트롤을 사용하여 대기열에서 다시 정렬하거나 대기열에서 제거할 수 있습니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 컴퓨팅 결과 장을 참조하십시오.

파일 시스템에서 파일 찾기

어떤 이유로 구조물 파일에 액세스해야 하는 경우 (아마 *.STL 폴더에 파일을 배치해야 함) 표시된 파일 경로를 시뮬레이션 입력 파일로 클릭하여 파일 시스템의 해당 위치로 이동할 수 있습니다.

4.모델 설정

Model Setup(모델 설정) 탭은 시뮬레이션 관리자에서 현재 선택한 시뮬레이션에 대한 입력 매개 변수를 정의하는 곳입니다. 여기에는 전역설정, 물리학 모델, 유체,
기하학, 메싱, 구성요소 특성, 초기 조건, 경계 조건, 출력 옵션 및 숫자가 포함된다.

이 섹션은 물에 잠긴 모래(위; 파랑)의 바닥에서 가열된 구리 블록(위; 빨간색)에 의해 발생하는 열 기둥(아래)을 보여주는 간단한 시뮬레이션 설정 방법을 안내합니다.

이 튜토리얼은 방법이나 모델이 어떻게 작동하는지, 옵션을 선택한 이유 등에 대한 포괄적인 논의를 의도한 것이 아니며, 이 특정 시뮬레이션을 설정하기 위해 수행해야 할 사항에
대한 간략한 개요일 뿐입니다. 여기서 행해지는 것에 대한 방법/모델과 추론의 세부사항은 사용 설명서의 다른 장에서 확인할 수 있습니다.

시작하려면 새 작업 공간을 작성하고 새 시뮬레이션을 추가하십시오. 이를 수행하는 방법에 대한 지침은 새 작업 공간 작성 및 작업 공간에 새 시뮬레이션 추가를 참조하십시오.

탐색

모델 설정은 주로 빨간색으로 표시된 처음 9 개의 아이콘의 탐색을 통해 수행됩니다. 각 아이콘은 시뮬레이션의 특정 측면을 구성하기 위한 위젯을 엽니다. Global에서 시작하여 Numerics로 끝나는 다음 섹션은 각 위젯의 목적을 보여줍니다.

통제 수단

다음은 FLOW-3D 사용자 인터페이스의 그래픽 디스플레이 영역에서 사용되는 마우스 컨트롤입니다.

행동	버튼/키	동작	기술
회전	왼쪽	길게 클릭	마우스 왼쪽 버튼을 클릭 한 채로 Meshing & Geometry 창에서 마우스를 움직입니다. 그에 따라 모델이 회전합니다.
줌	중간 버튼/스크롤 휠	스크롤/클릭 한 상태	마우스를 앞뒤로 움직여 확대/축소하려면 가운데 휠을 굴리거나 마우스 가운데 버튼을 클릭 한 상태로 유지하십시오.
팬	우측	길게 클릭	마우스 오른쪽 버튼을 클릭 한 채로 창에서 마우스를 움직입니다. 모델이 마우스와 함께 움직입니다.
객체에 초점 설정	해당 없음	객체 위에 커서를 놓기	커서를 개체 위로 가져 가면 마우스 오른쪽 버튼 클릭 메뉴를 통해 추가 조작을 위해 개체가 활성화됩니다. 개체가 활성화되면 강조 표시됩니다. Meshing & Geometry 탭에서 Tools->Mouse Hover Selection 환경 설정 이 활성화된 경우에만 수행됩니다.
선택	왼쪽	더블 클릭	객체를 두 번 클릭하면 마우스 오른쪽 버튼 메뉴를 통해 추가 조작을 위해 객체를 선택하고 활성화합니다. Meshing & Geometry 탭에서 Tools->Mouse Hover Selection 환경 설정 이 비활성화 된 경우에만 활성화됩니다.
액세스 객체 속성	우측	딸깍 하는 소리	강조 표시된 객체를 마우스 오른쪽 버튼으로 클릭하면 객체 식별, 표시/숨기기, 활성화/비활성화, 투명도 조정 등의 옵션 목록이 표시됩니다.
커서 좌표 반환 (프로브)	왼쪽	Shift + 클릭	Shift 키를 누르면 커서가 대상으로 바뀝니다. Shift 키를 누른 상태에서 클릭하면 화면의 왼쪽 하단에 표시된 표면의 좌표가 표시됩니다.
피벗 점 배치	왼쪽	cntrl + 클릭	Ctrl 키를 누르고 있으면 커서가 피벗 아이콘으로 바뀝니다. Ctrl 키를 누른 상태에서 클릭하여 피벗 점을 설정하십시오. 뷰가 피벗 점을 중심으로 회전합니다. 토글 사용자 정의 피벗 피벗 점을 끕니다. 보기 창 위의 버튼을 누릅니다.

도움이
되는 툴바 옵션도 있습니다. 옵션의 목적을 찾으려면 아이콘 위로 마우스를 가져갑니다.

글로벌

이 매뉴얼에 대한 시뮬레이션을 만들려면 원하는 작업 공간을 마우스 오른쪽 단추로 클릭하고 새 시뮬레이션 추가…를 선택하십시오. 매뉴얼 섹션의 새 시뮬레이션 추가 작업 공간에 설명된 대로 이름을 ‘heat transfer example’로 지정하고 작업 공간에 추가하십시오. SI와 Kelvin을 각각 단위 시스템과 온도로 선택합니다. 일단 설정되면
시뮬레이션을 위한 단위는 변경할 수 없다는 점을 기억하십시오.

글로벌 아이콘 f3d_global_icon 을 클릭하여 글로벌 위젯을 여십시오. 여기에서 정의된 단위가 표시되고 시뮬레이션 완료 시간이 설정됩니다. 이 시뮬레이션의 경우 완료 시간을 200 초로 설정하십시오. 시뮬레이션에 대한 중요한 세부 정보는 여기 노트 필드에도 추가할 수 있습니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 전역 섹션을 참조하십시오.

물리

물리 f3d_models_icon 아이콘을 클릭하여 물리 위젯을 엽니다.

이 문제의 경우, 하나의 유체, 자유 표면, 경계 및 비압축/제한 압축의 기본 설정이 모두 정확합니다.

관련 물리 메커니즘(즉, 추가 지배 방정식 또는 지배 방정식 용어)은 물리 위젯에서 정의됩니다. 모델을 활성화하려면 해당 모델의 아이콘을 마우스 왼쪽 버튼으로 클릭하고 ‘활성화‘를 선택하십시오. 이 시뮬레이션을 위해서는 다음 모델을 활성화해야 합니다.

·Density evaluation(밀도 평가): 이 모델은 열 기둥을 생성하는 밀도 변화를 설명합니다. 다른 양(예: 온도 또는 스칼라)의 함수로 평가된 밀도를 선택하고 Include volumetric thermal expansion 상자를 선택하십시오.

·Gravity and non-inertial reference frame(중력 및 비 관성 기준 프레임): 중력을 나타내는 힘이 추가되므로 Z 중력 성분에 -9.81을 입력하십시오.

·
Heat transfer(열 전달): 이 모델은 유체와 고체 물체 사이의 열 전달을 설명합니다. 이 시뮬레이션의 경우 First order for the Fluid internal Energy advection를 선택하고 Fluid to solid heat transfer를 활성화하려면 확인란을 선택하십시오. 나머지 옵션은 기본값으로 두어야합니다.

·
Viscosity and turbulence(점성 및 난류): 이 모델은 유체의 점성 응력을 설명합니다. Viscous flow 옵션을 선택하고 나머지 옵션은 기본값으로 두십시오.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 물리 섹션을 참조하십시오.

유체

유체의 속성은 모델 설정 탭의 유체 위젯에 정의되어 있습니다. 유체 위젯은 수직 도구 모음에서 Fluids f3d_fluids_icon 아이콘을 클릭하여 액세스할 수 있습니다. 먼저 유체 옵션 1 이 속성 옵션으로 선택되어 있는지 확인하십시오. 유체 1의 속성은 수동으로 입력할 수 있지만 일반적인 유체의 속성을 설정하는 빠른 방법은 재료 속성로드 버튼을 클릭하여 재료 데이터베이스에서 유체를 로드하는 것입니다. 다음으로, 원하는 재료를 탐색하십시오. 이 경우 Fluids->Liquids->Water_at_20_C를 선택하고 Load를 클릭하십시오.

이 시뮬레이션에는 데이터베이스에 없는 특성인 체적 열 팽창 계수가 필요합니다. 밀도 하위 탭에서 을 입력하십시오. 최종 속성 세트는 다음과 같아야 합니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 유체 섹션을 참조하십시오.

Geometry(기하)

기하형상 아이콘을 클릭하여 물리 위젯을 엽니다.

이 시뮬레이션을 위해 생성해야 하는 두 가지 형상은 구리 블록과 모래층이 있습니다. 둘 다 프리미티브를 사용하여 작성합니다. 보다 현실적인 시뮬레이션은 Primitives, Stereolithography(STL) Geometry File (s)/또는 Raster File (s)을 사용하여 지오메트리를 정의할 수 있습니다.

구리 블록을 만들려면 먼저 지정된 형상 아이콘을 클릭하여 작성합니다. 구리 블록을 x 및 y 방향 원점에서 +/- 2cm 연장하고 z 방향으로 0-4cm 연장합니다. 나머지 옵션은 그대로 두고 블럭을 솔리드로 만들고 새 구성 요소에 추가합니다.

하위 구성 요소 정의를 마치고 구성 요소 정의로 이동하려면 확인을 선택하십시오. 자동으로 열린 구성요소 추가 대화상자에서 Type as General(솔리드)을 그대로 두고 Name(이름) 필드에 Copper block을 입력한 다음 OK(확인)를 선택하여 구성요소 정의를 완료하십시오.

아이콘을 다시 클릭하여 베드 하위 구성 요소를 작성하십시오. 아래 표시된 범위를 사용하고 컴포넌트에 추가 선택 사항을 새 컴포넌트(2)로 설정하십시오.

하위 구성 요소 정의를 마치고 구성 요소 정의로 이동하려면 확인을 선택하십시오. 대화 형으로 이름 필드에서Bed를 입력한 후 구성요소 정의를 마칩니다. 최종 형상은 다음과 같이 표시됩니다.

새 구성 요소를 추가하면 가로 및 세로 방향으로 그래픽 표시 창에 길이 스케일이 자동으로 생성됩니다. 이 눈금자 도구를 사용하여 생성된 기하학적 객체의 범위를 빠르게 측정할 수 있습니다.

노트

표시 영역에는 지오메트리 모양 정의만 표시되므로 객체가 솔리드인지 구멍인지에 대한 정보는 표시되지 않습니다. 옵션을 사용하여 Mesh 후에 나중에 수행할 수 있습니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 도움말 모델 설정 장의 형상 섹션을 참조하십시오.

구성 요소 속성

열전달 모델은 고체 구성 요소의 전도 방정식을 해결하기 위해 재료 특성이 필요합니다. 이러한 속성은 이 아이콘을 클릭하여 구성 요소 속성 위젯에서 설정합니다.

각 구성 요소에는 솔리드 특성 및 표면 특성이 정의 되어 있어야합니다. 구리 블록에 대해 이를 설정하려면 먼저 형상 위젯에서 구성 요소 1: copper block 요소를 선택하십시오. 그런 다음 컴포넌트 특성 위젯에서 솔리드 특성을 선택하고 다음과 같이 특성을 정의하십시오.

여기에서 두 번째 구성 요소(베드)에 대해 설명된 구성 요소 특성 정의를 위한 대체 방법을 사용할 수 있습니다. 이 방법에서는 구성 요소 2: 베드 구성 요소를 클릭하고 재료 필드 옆에 있는 재료 특성로드 아이콘을 선택하여 시작합니다. 다음으로 재료를 탐색합니다. 이 경우 Solids->Sands->Sand_Quartz 를 선택하고 Load를 선택하십시오.

추가 정보

l 자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 유체 섹션을 참조하십시오.

l 주어진 물리적 모델에 필요한 속성에 대한 자세한 내용은 모델 참조 장을 참조하십시오.

Meshing(메싱)

Mesh는 Mesh 위젯에서 생성 및 정의되며, 위젯을 통해 액세스 할 수 있습니다. 이 아이콘을 눌러 새 Mesh를 추가합니다. Mesh의 범위를 형상에 빠르게 적용하려면 형상에 맞추기 라디오 버튼을 선택하고 오프셋 라디오 버튼을 백분율로 유지합니다. 블록 속성에서 셀 크기를 0.004로 설정하십시오.

Mesh 상단은 z 방향으로 위쪽으로 확장해야 합니다. Z-Direciton 탭을 선택하고 Mesh Plane 2에 0.2를 입력합니다.

이 시뮬레이션은 2D가 될 것입니다. 동일한 프로세스에 따라 Y 방향 범위를 -0.005 및 0.005 로 설정하십시오. 그리고 합계 셀을 1로 설정하십시오.

최종 Mesh는 그래픽 디스플레이 창 바로 위의 Mesh->Flow Mesh->View 모드 드롭 다운 메뉴에서 옵션을 변경하여 다른 방식으로 볼 수 있습니다. 그리드 라인 마다 그리드 선을 표시합니다 옵션은 Mesh Plane의 옵션만 표시됩니다 Plane Mesh 및 개요 옵션은 Mesh의 범위를 보여줍니다.

또한 솔버가 Mesh의 최종 지오메트리를 인식하는 방법은 FAVOR TM 알고리즘을 사용하여 형상 정의를 면적 분수 및 부피 분수로 변환합니다. 이렇게 하려면 아이콘을 클릭한 다음 생성을 선택하십시오.

잠시 후 회색 영역이 고체 물질을 나타내는 아래와 같은 형상을 표시해야 합니다.

추가 정보

l Mesh에 대한 자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 Mesh 섹션을 참조하십시오.

l FAVOR^TM 및 FAVORize
옵션에 대한 자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 Reviewing the FAVORized Geometry and Mesh 섹션을 참조하십시오.

경계 조건

FLOW-3D는 구성 요소 유형 및 활성 물리적 모델에 기초한 구성 요소에 적절한 경계 조건을 자동으로 적용합니다. 그러나 경계 조건 위젯에서 Mesh 블록면의 경계 조건은 각 Mesh 블록에 대해 수동으로 설정해야 합니다( ).

이 매뉴얼의 경우 경계 조건 중 3 가지가 경계조건( X Min , X Max, Z Max 경계)을 기본 대칭 조건조건부터 변경해야 합니다.

·X Min :

o경계 조건 위젯의 경계 섹션 아래에 있는 X Min 목록을 클릭하십시오. Type에서 경계 유형을 Velocity로 설정하고 X 속도에 대해 0.001을 입력하십시오.

·다음으로, 유체 분율 사용에서 유체 표고 사용으로 드롭다운 상자를 변경하고 유체 높이를 0.15로 설정하십시오.

·마지막으로 온도를 298K로 설정하십시오.

·
X Max :

o경계 조건 위젯의 경계 섹션 아래에 있는 X 최대 목록을 클릭하십시오. 경계 유형을 압력으로 설정하고 압력에 대해 0을 입력하십시오.

o다음으로, 유체 분율 사용에서 유체 높이 사용으로 드롭다운 상자를 변경하고 유체 높이를 0.15로 설정하십시오.

o마지막으로 온도를 298K로 맞춥니다.

o XMAX 경계 조건

·
Z 최대 :

o경계 조건 위젯의 경계 섹션 아래에 있는 Z 최대 목록을 클릭하십시오. 경계 유형을 압력으로 설정하고 압력에 대해 0을 입력하십시오.

o다음으로 유체 분율을 0.0으로 설정하십시오.

o마지막으로 온도를 298K로 맞춘다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 Mesh 경계 조건 섹션을 참조하십시오.

초기 조건

도메인 내부의 솔리드 객체(구성 요소)와 유체 모두에 대해 초기 조건을 설정해야 합니다.

·
구성 요소 :이 시뮬레이션에서 솔리드 객체에 필요한 유일한 초기 조건은 초기 온도입니다. 이것은 각 구성 요소에 대한 위젯에 설정되어 있는 구성 요소 속성에 대해 수행한 것과 유사한 방식으로 구성 요소를 등록합니다. 구성 요소 속성을 설정할 때 이전과 동일한 방법으로 구성 요소 1의 초기 온도를 350K로 설정하고 구성 요소 2의 초기 온도를 298K로 설정하십시오.

유체: 유체의 초기 조건을 설정하기 위해 조금 더 설정해야 합니다. 이 경우 유체 구성, 온도, 속도 및 압력 분포를 모두 설정해야 합니다. 유체 초기 조건은 초기 위젯을 설정하고 초기 f3d_initial_icon를 클릭하면 열립니다.

아이콘을 선택한 후 유체 목록에서 압력을 선택하고 온도를 298K로 설정합니다. x, y, z 속도를 0.0으로 설정하십시오.

다음으로, 높이/볼륨 목록과 유체 높이 사용 드롭다운 버튼을 선택합니다. 유체 높이를 0.15로 설정하십시오.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 초기 조건 섹션을 참조하십시오.

출력

FLOW-3D 옵션에는 결과 파일에 기록될 데이터와 출력 위젯에서 발견된 빈도를 제어하는 7가지 데이터 유형이 있습니다. 출력 아이콘을 클릭합니다.

다른 데이터 유형은 다음과 같습니다.

·Restart: 모든 흐름 변수. 기본 출력 주기는 시뮬레이션 시간의 1/10입니다.

·Selected: 사용자가 선택한 흐름 변수 만. 기본 출력 주기는 시뮬레이션 시간의 1/100입니다.

·History: 하나의 변수와 시간의 변화를 보여주는 데이터. 예는 시간 단계 크기, 평균 운동 에너지, 배플에서의 유속 등을 포함합니다. 기본 출력 주기 = 시뮬레이션 시간의 1/100.

·Short print: hd3msg.*파일에 텍스트 진단 데이터가 기록 됩니다. 기본 출력 주기는 시뮬레이션 시간의 1/100입니다.

·Long print : hd3out.*파일에 텍스트 진단 데이터가 기록 됩니다. 기본 출력 주기는 시뮬레이션 시간의 1/10입니다.

·Solidification: 응고 모델이 활성화 된 경우에만 사용 가능합니다.

·FSI TSE: 변형 가능한 솔리드에 대한 추가 출력 옵션.

일반적으로 이 시뮬레이션에는 기본 출력 속도가 적합합니다. 그러나 Selected Data의 일부 추가 구성은 유용합니다. Selected data interval을 0.5로 설정한 다음 Fluid 온도, Fluid velocity, Macroscopic density 및 Wall 온도 옆에 있는 상자를 선택합니다. 그러면 이러한 값이 0.5초마다 출력됩니다.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 출력 섹션을 참조하십시오.

Numerics

기본 Numerics 옵션은 대부분의 시뮬레이션에서 잘 작동하므로 기본 옵션에서 벗어나야 하는 충분한 이유가 없는 경우에는 현재 그대로 두는 것이 가장 좋습니다.

이것으로 모델 설정 섹션에서 시작된 예제 문제의 설정을 마칩니다. 이제 실행할 준비가 되었으므로 전처리 및 시뮬레이션 실행의 단계에 따라 시뮬레이션을 실행하십시오.

추가 정보

자세한 내용은 모델 설정 장의 Numerics 옵션 섹션을 참조하십시오.

일반 시뮬레이션 설정 점검 목록

시뮬레이션을 설정하는 데 필요한 단계에 대한 개략적인 개요가 아래에 나와 있습니다. 이 목록은 포괄적인 목록이 아닙니다. 일반적인 단계, 고려해야 할 몇 가지 중요한 사항 및 권장되는 설정 순서를 간단히 설명하는 안내서일 뿐입니다.

시작하기 전에

1.물리적 문제의 다이어그램을 그리기 및 주석 달기 : 이 다이어그램에는 기하학적 치수, 유체의 위치, 관련 힘, 움직이는 물체의 속도, 관련 열 전달 메커니즘 등이 포함되어야 합니다. 완성된 다이어그램은 문제에 대한 모든 관련 엔지니어링 정보로 인한 물리적 문제에 대한 이미지여야 합니다.

2.모델링 접근법 결정: 주석이 달린 다이어그램을 가이드로 사용하여 문제점에 접근하는 방법을 결정 : 문제가 되는 유체의 수, 혼화 가능한 경우, 하나 이상의 유체에서 방정식을 풀어야하는 경우 및 압축성이 중요한지 파악하여 시작하십시오. 그런 다음 어떤 물리적 메커니즘이 중요한지 결정하십시오. 이러한 각 옵션 (예: 유체 유형, 열 전달 메커니즘 등)에 대한 관련 엔지니어링 정보를 다이어그램에 추가하십시오. 물리적 메커니즘이 포함되거나 무시된 이유를 정당화하려고 합니다. 이를 통해 시뮬레이션 프로세스 초기에 오류를 수정하는 데 시간이 거의 걸리지 않는 초기에 실수를 잡을 수 있습니다.

3.다이어그램에 계산 영역을 그리고, 계산 영역의 가장자리에 있는 물리적 상황 설명 : 경계의 물리적 상황을 가장 잘 나타내는 경계 조건 유형을 기록합니다. 사용 가능한 경계 조건 유형이 경계의 물리적 상황에 대한 합리적인 근사치가 아닌 경우 이 경계를 다른 곳으로 이동해야 합니다.

모델 설정 : 일반

1.문제, 시뮬레이션의 목적, 사례 번호 등을 설명하는 메모를 추가하십시오. 메모는 향후 사용자 또는 나중에 참조할 수 있도록 설정을 설명하고 정당화하는 데 도움이 됩니다. 시뮬레이션의 목적, 분석 방법 등을 논의해야합니다.

2.사용할 솔버와 프로세서 수를 선택하십시오.

3.단위 시스템 선택: 소규모 문제를 모델링 할 때는 작은 단위 (예 : mm-gm-msec)를 사용하고 규모가 큰 문제는 큰 단위 (예 : SI)를 사용하십시오. 이를 통해 기계 정밀도로 인한 반올림 오류를 방지할 수 있습니다.

4.유체 수, 인터페이스 추적 옵션 및 유량 모드를 선택하십시오. 주석이 달린 다이어그램을 이 단계의 지침으로 사용하십시오. 유체의 수는 질량, 운동량 및 에너지 보존을 관장하는 방정식이 유체 분율 f> 0″ width=”44″ height=”17″ border=”0″></span>(</span>유체<span lang= 1을 나타내는) 또는 유체 분획 $f \ geq 0$ (유체 1 및 유체 2)이 있는 영역에서 해결되는지 여부를 나타냅니다. 인터페이스
추적 옵션은 유체 분율의 변화가 급격한지 또는 확산되어야 하는지 여부를 정의하는 반면, 흐름 모드는 두 유체 문제에서 처리되는 영역을 정의합니다.

5.마감 조건 정의: 시뮬레이션 종료 시점을 선택합니다. 시간, 채우기 비율 또는 기타 정상 상태 측정을 기반으로 할 수 있습니다.

6.기존 결과에서 시뮬레이션을 다시 시작하는 방법 정의 (선택 사항): 기존 결과 파일에서 시뮬레이션을 다시 시작할 때 다시 시작 옵션이 적용됩니다. 재시작 옵션은 재시작 소스 파일에서 가져온 정보와 시뮬레이션의 초기 조건을 사용하여 재설정되는 정보를 정의합니다.

모델 설정 : 물리

1.주석이 달린 다이어그램을 기반으로 관련 실제 모델 활성화

모델 설정 : 유체

1.유체의 속성 정의 1: 주석이 달린 다이어그램을 가이드로 사용하여 활성 물리적 모델에 대한 적절한 물리적 속성을 정의하십시오.

2.유체 2의 속성 정의 (사용하는 경우): 주석이 달린 다이어그램을 가이드로 사용하여 활성 물리적 모델에 적절한 물리적 속성을 정의하십시오.

3.인터페이스의 속성 정의: f = 1과 f = 0의 영역 사이의 인터페이스 속성을 정의하십시오. 여기에는 표면 장력, 상 변화 및 확산에 대한 특성이 포함됩니다.

모델 설정 : Mesh 및 형상

1.모든 STL 파일의 오류 점검: ADmesh, netfabb Studio 또는 유사한 프로그램을 사용하여 모든 STL 파일의 오류를 점검하십시오. 이는 모델 설정에 시간을 소비하기 전에 형상
정의와 관련된 문제를 파악하는 데 도움이 됩니다.

2.모든 하위 구성 요소 및 구성 요소 가져 오기 및 정의 : 주석이 달린 다이어그램에 설명 된 대로 실제 사례와 일치하도록 3D 솔리드 형상을 정의합니다. 최종 결과는 물리적 형상의 정확한 복제본이어야 합니다. 각 부분에 설명적인 이름을 사용하고 대량 소스가 될 구성 요소를 포함하십시오.

3.모든 구성 요소의 속성 정의: 주석이 달린 다이어그램에 그려진 내용을 기반으로 각 구성 요소의 모든 재료 속성, 표면 속성, 모션 속성 등을 정의합니다. 경계 조건이 정의될 때까지 질량 소스 특성을 정의하기를 기다리십시오.

4.스프링과 로프 및 각각에 대한 관련 속성을 정의합니다.

5.주석이 달린 다이어그램에 설명된 시뮬레이션 도메인과 일치하도록 Mesh를 정의하십시오. 도메인의 모서리가 다이어그램에서 식별된 위치에 있는지 확인하십시오. 또한 인터페이스 (셀이 있는 셀과 셀이 다른 셀 이 있는 셀)를 식별하려면 세 개의 셀이 필요합니다. ). 최소 5 개의 셀이 예상되는 가장 얇은 연속 영역에 맞도록 충분히 작은 셀을 사용하십시오. 과 .

6.지오메트리를 정의하는 모든 배플 정의

7.경계 조건, 질량 소스, 질량 모멘텀 소스, 밸브 및 벤트 정의: 경계 조건 (질량 소스, 질량 모멘텀 소스, 밸브 및 벤트 포함)은 모든 방정식을 풀기 위해 주어진 위치에서 솔루션을 규정합니다. 주석이 달린 다이어그램을 사용하여 각 경계 (또는 소스 등)에 지정된 내용이 유동 솔루션, 열 전달 솔루션, 전위 등에 대한 현실과 일치하는지 확인하십시오.

8.유체 및 구성 요소의 초기 조건을 정의합니다. 초기 조건은 모든 방정식 (유량 솔루션, 열 전달 솔루션, 전위 등)에 대해 모든 영역에서 솔루션을 규정합니다. .주석이
달린 다이어그램을 사용하여 초기 조건에 지정된 내용이 현재 현실에 대한 근사치인지 확인하십시오. 유체 영역뿐만 아니라 구성 요소의 초기 조건을 설정해야 합니다.

9.모든 측정 장치 정의 (샘플링 볼륨, 플럭스 표면 및 히스토리 프로브)

모델 설정 : 출력

1.출력 기준 (시간, 채우기 비율 또는 응고된 비율)을 선택하십시오.

2.재시작 데이터에 추가할 출력을 선택하십시오.

3.선택한 데이터에 기록할 정보를 선택하십시오.

4.재시작, 선택, 히스토리, 짧은 인쇄 및 긴 인쇄 데이터의 출력 속도 정의 : 기본 속도는 재시작 및 긴 인쇄 데이터의 경우 (10개 출력)/(시뮬레이션 종료 시간) 및 선택한 기록, 짧은 인쇄 데이터의 경우 (100개 출력)/(시뮬레이션 종료 시간)입니다.

모델 설정 : 숫자

1.기본값이 아닌 필수 숫자 옵션을 선택 FLOW-3D의 숫자 옵션은 고급 사용자를 대상으로 하며, 지배 방정식을 해결하는 데 사용되는 숫자 근사치 및 방법을 상당히 제어할 수 있습니다. 이러한 옵션 중 일부를 잘못 사용하면 솔루션에 문제가 발생할 수 있으므로 일반적으로 이 옵션의 기능을 먼저 이해하고 조정의 정당성을 갖추지 않고는 이러한 설정을 조정하지 않습니다.

5.FLOW-3D에서 후 처리

이 섹션에서는 FLOW-3D에 통합된 포스트 프로세서를 사용하는 방법에 대해 설명합니다. 보다 강력한 외부 포스트프로세서 FlowSight에 대한 튜토리얼은 FlowSight 설명서를 참조하십시오. 또한 이 섹션에서는 Flow Over A Weir 예제 문제를 실행하여 생성된 결과 파일을 사용합니다. 이 예제 문제를 실행하는 방법에 대한 지침은 예제 추가 및 시뮬레이션 사전 처리 및 실행을 참조합니다.

FlowSight 사용에 대한 기본 참조는 FlowSight의 Help->helpLocal Help 메뉴에서 액세스하는 FlowSight 사용자 설명서입니다.

추가 정보

기존 플롯

기존 플롯은 솔버가 자동으로 생성하는 사전 정의된 플롯입니다. 사용자 정의 플롯은 아래의 사용자 정의 플롯 섹션에 설명되어 있습니다.

1.분석 탭을 클릭하십시오. FLOW-3D 결과 대화 상자가 표시됩니다; 메세지가 나타나지 않으면 (분석 탭이 열림) 결과 파일 열기를 선택하여 동일한 대화 상자를 엽니다.

2.기존 라디오 버튼을 선택하십시오. 데이터 파일 경로 상자에 두 가지 유형의 파일이 표시됩니다 (있는 경우). 이름이 prpplt.*있는 파일 에는 전처리 flsplt.*기에 의해 자동으로 작성된 플롯이 포함되고 이름이 있는 파일에는 입력 파일에 사전 지정된 플롯 뿐만 아니라 후 처리기에 의해 자동으로 작성된 플롯이 포함됩니다.

3. 확인을 선택 flsplt.Flow_Over_A_Weir하고 클릭하십시오. 그러면 디스플레이 탭이 자동으로 열립니다.

4.사용 가능한 플롯 목록이 오른쪽에 나타납니다. 목록에서 해당 플롯의 이름을 클릭하면 특정 플롯을 볼 수 있습니다. 플롯 26 이 아래에 나와 있습니다.

커스텀 플롯

1.분석 탭으로 돌아갑니다. 대화 상자를 열려면 결과 파일 열기를 선택하십시오.

2.전체 출력 파일을 보려면 사용자 정의 단일 선택 단추를 선택하십시오. 전체 출력 파일에는 prpgrf.*파일과 파일이 포함됩니다 flsgrf.*. 시뮬레이션이 실행되었으므로 전 처리기 출력 파일이 삭제되어 flsgrf파일에 통합되었습니다.

3.flsgrf.Flow_Over_A_Weir대화 상자 에서 파일을 선택하고 확인을 클릭하십시오.

이제 분석 탭이 표시됩니다. 시뮬레이션 결과를 시각화 하는 방법에는 여러 가지가 있습니다. 사용 가능한 플롯 유형은 다음과 같습니다.

·Custom : 이 매뉴얼 의 FLSINP 파일을 사용하여 플롯합니다. 사용자 정의 섹션의 출력 코드를 사용하여 출력 플롯을 수동으로 수정하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다. 이것은 고급 옵션입니다.

·프로브 : 개별 셀, 경계, 구성 요소 및 도메인 전체(전역) 변수 대 시간에 대한 그래픽 및 텍스트 출력을 표시합니다. 자세한 내용은 프로브 플롯 및 프로브 : 특정 시점의 데이터와 시간 을 참조하십시오.

·1-D : 셀 데이터는 X, Y 또는 Z 방향의 셀 라인을 따라 볼 수 있습니다. 플롯 제한은 공간 및 시간에 모두 적용할 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 1-D 플롯 및 1-D : 라인을 따른 데이터 대 시간 을 참조하십시오.

·2-D : 셀 데이터는 XY, YZ 또는 XZ 평면에서 볼 수 있습니다. 플롯 제한은 공간 및 시간에 모두 적용할 수 있습니다. 속도 벡터 및 입자를 추가할 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 2 차원 플롯 및 2 차원 : 평면의 데이터와 시간의 데이터 를 참조하십시오.

·3-D : 유체와 고체의 표면 플롯을 생성하고 셀 데이터로 채색 할 수 있습니다. 속도 벡터, 입자 (있는 경우) 및 유선과 같은 추가 정보를 추가할 수 있습니다. 플롯 제한은 공간 및 시간에 모두 적용할 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 3D 플롯 및 3D : 표면의 데이터 대 시간 을 참조하십시오.

·텍스트 출력 : cell-by-cell 재시작, 선택 및 응고 데이터를 텍스트 파일에 쓸 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 텍스트 출력 및 텍스트 : ASCII 형식의 공간 데이터 출력 대 시간 을 참조하십시오.

·중립 파일 : 재시작 및 선택된 데이터는 별도의 텍스트 파일에 정의 된 지정된 지점(보간 또는 셀 중심)에서 출력 될 수 있습니다. 자세한 내용은 중립 파일 : 사용자 정의 좌표에서의 공간 데이터 출력 대 시간 을 참조하십시오.

·FSI TSE : 유한 요소 유체 / 고체 상호 작용 및 열 응력 진화 물리학 패키지에서 출력됩니다. 자세한 내용은 FSI / TSE : 표면의 구조 데이터와 시간 을 참조하십시오.

3 차원 도표

1.Analyze -> 3-D 탭을 선택하십시오.

2.Iso-surface = Fraction of fluid를 선택하십시오. 이것은 표면을 그리는 데 사용되는 변수입니다. 선택한 등면 변수에 대한 등고선 값 기준을 충족하는 모든 셀을 통해 표면이 그려집니다. 유체의 분율이 기본값이며 유체 표면이 표시됩니다.

3.색상 변수 = 압력을 선택하십시오. 이 선택은 등위면의 색을 지정하는 데 사용되는 변수를 결정합니다 (이 경우 유체 표면은 압력에 의해 색이 그려집니다).

4.Component iso-surface overlay = Solid volume을 선택하십시오. 솔리드 볼륨 은 유체와 함께 솔리드 구성 요소를 표시합니다. 이전 단계에서는 체적 분수의 보완을 등위면으로 선택하여 이 작업을 수행했지만 이 옵션을 사용하면 유체와 고체 표면을 동시에 플롯 할 수 있습니다.

5.이동 시간 프레임의 최소 및 최대 위치들 (0 내지 1.25 초)에 슬라이더 위치.

6.렌더 버튼을 클릭하여 디스플레이 탭으로 전환하고 t = 0.0에서 1.25 초 사이에 일련의 11 플롯을 생성하여 압력에 의해 채색된 유체 표면과 위어 구조를 보여줍니다. 데이터 다시 시작 이 선택되었으므로 11 개의 플롯이 있습니다.

7.사용 가능한 플롯이 사용 가능한 시간 프레임 목록에 나열됩니다. 다음을 클릭하여 시간 프레임 사이를 이동하거나 시간 프레임을 두 번 클릭하여 표시하십시오. 첫 번째 및 마지막 시간 프레임은 다음과 같아야 합니다.

8.Analyze -> 3-D 탭으로 돌아가서 Data Source 그룹에서 Selected data 라디오 버튼을 선택하십시오.

9.시간 프레임 선택기의 두 슬라이더가 모두 오른쪽에 있으므로 마지막 시간 프레임 만 생성됩니다. 사용 가능한 시간 프레임이 많고 렌더링하는데 시간이 오래 걸리므로 선택한 데이터를 선택하면 인터페이스에서 자동으로 수행됩니다. 사용 가능한 모든 시간 프레임을 렌더링 하려면 왼쪽 슬라이더를 Time Frame Min = 0 으로 이동하십시오.

10. 렌더링 버튼을 클릭하십시오. 몇 초 안에 뷰가 디스플레이 창으로 전환되고 101 개의 플롯이 사용 가능한 시간 프레임 목록에 나열됩니다. 시간 프레임 사이를 이동하려면 다음을 반복해서 클릭하십시오.

대칭 흐름 표시

위어 중심 아래로 대칭 평면을 사용하여 시뮬레이션을 설정했으므로 위어 구조의 절반만 시뮬레이션되고 표시됩니다. 프리젠테이션 목적으로 대칭 모델의 두 반쪽을 모두 표시할
수 있습니다.

1.아래와 같이 Analyze -> 3-D 탭으로 돌아가서 Open Symmetry Boundaries 확인란을 선택하십시오.

2.렌더링을 클릭하십시오. 유체 표면이 디스플레이 탭의 대칭 경계에서 열린 상태로 나타납니다.

3.화면 위의 도구 모음 메뉴에서 도구 -> 대칭을 선택하십시오.

4.대화 상자에서 Y 방향 확인란을 선택하여 Y = 0 평면에서 결과를 미러링합니다.

5.적용 및 닫기를 선택하십시오.

6.마지막 시간 프레임을 두 번 클릭하십시오. 디스플레이는 아래와 같이 전체 위어 구조를 보여줍니다.

3 차원 애니메이션 만들기

다음 단계는 3 차원 유체 표면의 애니메이션을 만드는 것입니다. 애니메이션은 사용 가능한 시간 프레임 목록의 프레임에서 만든 동영상입니다. 애니메이션의 시각적 효과를 향상시키려면 모든 프레임에 공통 색상 스케일을 적용하는 것이 좋습니다.

1.분석 -> 3-D 탭으로 돌아갑니다.

2.윤곽 제한 그룹 상자에서 전역 라디오 버튼을 모두 선택하십시오.

3.렌더 를 클릭 하여 다시 그리고 디스플레이 탭으로 돌아갑니다.

4.도구 -> 대칭 -> Y 방향 -> 적용 선택을 반복하여 Y = 0 평면에서 결과를 반영합니다.

5.선택 도구 -> 애니메이션 -> 러버 밴드 캡처를 다음과 같이 선택 확인 Mesh지가 나타납니다 그것을 읽은 후.

6.마우스 왼쪽 버튼을 클릭 한 상태에서 드래그하여 애니메이션을 적용할 화면 부분을 선택하십시오. 선택한 영역 주위에 선택 상자가 나타납니다.

7.디스플레이 창 위에서 빨간색 캡처 버튼을 선택하십시오. 애니메이션을 시작하는 대화 상자가 나타납니다.

8.애니메이션의 기본 이름은 out.avi입니다. 아래에 표시된 것처럼 보다 구체적인 이름이 권장됩니다.

9.기본 프레임 속도는 초당 10 프레임입니다. 이 시뮬레이션의 마감 시간은 1.25 초이고, 일정한 시간 간격으로 100 개의 플롯이 있으므로 ‘실제‘속도는 초당 80 프레임입니다. 너무 빠를 수 있으므로 대신 5 를 입력 하고 확인을 누르십시오.

10. 각 시간 프레임이 표시 창에 렌더링 되고 비트 맵 파일이 시뮬레이션 디렉토리에 작성됩니다. 이 프로세스가 완료되면 다음 대화 상자가 나타납니다.

프로세스의 다음 단계를 시작하려면 확인 버튼을 클릭하십시오. 새로운 프로세스 (BMP2VAI.exe)가 시작되고 압축 방법을 선택할 수 있는 새로운 비디오 압축 창이 나타납니다. 다른 창 뒤에 숨겨져 있으면 앞으로 가져옵니다.
애니메이션의 기본 압축은 압축되지 않습니다. 파일 크기가 너무 커서 뷰어에 로드 할 수 없으므로 대부분의 애니메이션에는 권장되지 않습니다. Windows를 사용하는 경우 Microsoft Video 1을, Linux를 사용하는 경우 Cinepak을 선택하십시오. 여기에서 선택하는 것은 컴퓨터에서 사용할 수 있는 비디오 코덱과 비디오를 표시하는 데 사용하는 기계에서 사용할 수 있는 것입니다.
애니메이션 속도가 데이터 속도에 의해 제한되지 않도록 데이터 속도 확인란을 선택 취소하십시오.

압축 프로세스를 시작하려면 확인을 클릭하십시오. 압축이 완료되면 다음 대화 상자가 나타납니다.

확인을 클릭하십시오. 애니메이션 프로세스가 완료되었습니다.
Windows 탐색기에서 .avi 파일을 찾는 가장 빠른 방법 은 시뮬레이션 관리자 탭으로 이동하여 시뮬레이션 입력 파일 링크를 클릭하는 것 입니다.
.avi파일 을 두 번 클릭하여 애니메이션을 재생 하십시오. 이전에 선택한 압축 형식을 읽을 수 있는 올바른 코덱이 설치되어 있지 않으면 오픈 소스 다중 코덱 비디오 플레이어 설치를 고려하십시오.

2 차원 도표

1.Analyze -> 2-D 탭을 선택하십시오. 이 시뮬레이션의 결과를 보는 데 가장 유용한 평면은 평면 Y = 0.0에있는 위어 중심선의 XZ 평면입니다.

2.XZ 평면 라디오 버튼을 선택하십시오.

3.Y 제한 슬라이더를 모두 Y = 0.25 (Y = 0.0에 가장 가까운 셀 중심 y 좌표)로 드래그 합니다. 또한 동일한 위치가 J = 2 로 식별되어 해당 셀이 도메인에서 두 번째임을 나타냅니다. 첫 번째 셀 (J = 1) 은 Mesh 외부에 있으며 경계
조건 속성을 계산하는 데 사용됩니다. 기본 윤곽 변수는 압력이며 기본 속도 벡터는 기본적으로 선택됩니다. 솔리드 형상은 모든 2D 플롯과 함께 자동으로 표시되므로 3D 플롯과 같이 활성화 할 필요가 없습니다.

4.벡터 옵션을 클릭하고 X = 2 및 Z = 2를 입력하십시오. 벡터는 이제 다른 모든 셀에 플롯 됩니다. 벡터 옵션을 적용하려면 확인을 선택하십시오.

5.Y = 0 평면에서 2 차원 압력 플롯의 시간 시퀀스를 생성하려면 렌더링을 클릭하십시오. T = 0.0 초 (왼쪽) 인 다음과 유사한 그래픽이 나타납니다. T = 0.125 초 (중간); 그리고 T = 1.25 초 (오른쪽).

6.디스플레이 화면의 오른쪽 상단에 있는 형식 버튼을 선택하십시오.

7.선 색상, 벡터 길이 및 화살촉 크기 변경과 같은 다양한 옵션을 시험해보십시오. 변경 사항을 보려면 적용을 선택하십시오. 완료되면 재설정 및 확인을 선택하여
기본 설정으로 돌아가서 대화 상자를 닫습니다. 모든 플롯에 대해 선호하는 옵션 세트가 있는 경우 저장 버튼을 선택하여 저장할 수 있습니다.

1 차원 도표

분석 -> 1-D 탭을 선택하십시오. 이 탭에서는 하나 이상의 플롯 시간에서 셀 행을 따라 압력, 유체 깊이, 유체 상승 및 속도와 같은 셀별 출력 변수의 꺾은 선형
차트 플롯을 사용할 수 있습니다.
데이터 소스 로 선택을 선택합니다. 사용 가능한 변수는 이제 더 빈번한 플로팅을 위해 선택된 변수 만 표시합니다.
자유 변수 표고를 데이터 변수 로 선택하십시오. 유압 데이터는 출력 탭에서 선택되었으므로 사용할 수 있습니다.

이 시뮬레이션의 흐름 방향은 주로 x 축과 평행하므로 X 방향을 선택하십시오.
Y 방향 슬라이더를 0.25(J = 2)로 이동하여 Y 방향에서 흐름 중심선에 가장 가까운 셀이 표시됩니다.
기본적으로 전체 X 범위가 표시됩니다. 플롯의 범위를 제한하려는 경우 X 방향 슬라이더를 이동할 수 있습니다. Z 방향 슬라이더의 위치는 주어진 x, y 위치에서 z 셀의 각 열에 대해 하나의 자유 표면 높이만 기록되므로 중요하지 않습니다. 시간 프레임 슬라이더는 0초와 1.25초여야 합니다.

렌더링을 클릭하십시오. t = 0.0에서 t = 1.25s까지의 시리즈 플롯이 디스플레이 탭의 플롯 목록에 나열됩니다. 이러한 플롯을 볼 수 있는 여러 가지 모드가
있습니다. 기본 모드는 단일 모드이며 형식 버튼 아래의 드롭 다운 상자에 표시됩니다.

다양한 시간에 유체 표면 높이의 플롯을 비교하려면 드롭 다운 상자에서 오버레이 모드를 선택하십시오.
오른쪽 창에서 플롯 1, 13 및 101 을 선택하려면 클릭하십시오. 플롯 이름에는 또한 기록된 시간이 표시됩니다 (t = 0.0, 0.15s 및 1.25 초). 출력은 아래와 같이 나타납니다.

이 플롯을 비트 맵 또는 포스트 스크립트 파일에 저장하려면 출력 버튼을 선택하십시오.
확인 화면에 플롯 오버레이 플롯을 캡처하는 확인란을 (그리고 단 하나의 출력 파일을).
쓰기 버튼을 선택하여 이미지 파일을 만듭니다.
결과 이미지 파일은 시뮬레이션 디렉토리에 있으며 (시뮬레이션 관리자 탭 에서이 파일을 찾는 방법을 기억하십시오) 이름이 지정한 plots_on_screen.bmp됩니다.

프로브 플롯

1.
분석 -> 프로브 탭을 선택하십시오. 시간 기록 플롯은이 탭에서 변수 대 시간의 라인 그래프 또는 텍스트 출력으로 생성됩니다. FLOW-3D 에는 데이터 소스 그룹에서 선택되는 세 가지 유형의 시간 종속 데이터가 있습니다.

·공간 데이터 : 재시작 및 선택된 데이터 소스. 단일 x, y, z 셀 중심 좌표의 시간 종속 값이 표시됩니다. 값은 시간과 관련하여 통합되거나 시간과 관련하여 차별화되거나 이동 평균 (시간)으로 통합될 수 있습니다.

·일반 history 데이터 :. 글로벌 수량은 시간에 따라 다릅니다. 일반적인 양은 평균 운동 에너지, 시간 단계 및 대류 볼륨 오류입니다. 또한 이 데이터 유형에는 모델 설정 -> 메싱 및 지오메트리 탭에서 이러한 옵션을 선택한 경우 지정된 측정 위치(배플, 샘플링 볼륨, 히스토리 프로브)의 모든 데이터와 이동 또는 정지 상태의 솔리드 및 스프링/로프를
위한 통합 출력이 포함됩니다.

·Mesh-dependent data : 메쉬 경계에서 시간에 따른 수량(계산 또는 사용자 지정)입니다. 일반적인 수량은 경계에서의 유량 및 경계에서의 지정된 유체 높이입니다.

2.데이터 원본에서 일반 기록 라디오 버튼을 선택합니다. X, Y 및 Z 데이터 점 슬라이더가 회색으로 바뀝니다. 이는 일반 기록 데이터가 특정 셀과 연결되어 있지 않기 때문입니다.

3.목록에서 질량 평균 유체 평균 운동 에너지를 선택하십시오.

4. 단위를 선택하여 플로팅 단위 대화 상자를 엽니다.

5. 플롯에 단위 표시를 선택하십시오.

6. SI, CGS, slugs/feet/seconds 또는 pounds/inches/seconds를 선택하여 원하는 단위 시스템으로 결과를 변환하고 출력합니다. 장치를 표시하고 변환하려면 모델 설정 -> 일반 탭에서 장치 시스템을 선택해야 합니다. 이전 단계에서 이 항목을 확인했으며, 지오메트리 및 유체 특성은 centimeters/grams/seconds 시스템에서 지정되었습니다.

7.Plotting Units 대화 상자를 닫으려면 OK를 선택하십시오.

8.데이터의 그래픽 출력을 생성하려면 렌더를 선택하십시오. 출력은 시간에 따른 영역의 모든 유체에 대한 질량 평균 평균 운동 에너지를 보여줍니다. 이전 단계에서 선택한 사항에 따라 단위 레이블과 함께 그림이 나타납니다. 플롯은 총 운동 에너지가 일부 평균값 주위에서 진동하고 있음을 나타냅니다. 진동이 작아짐에 따라 시뮬레이션은 정상 상태 흐름에 접근합니다.

9.분석 -> 프로브 탭으로 돌아갑니다.

10. 출력 양식 그룹에서 텍스트를 선택하여 그래프를 텍스트 데이터로 출력한 다음 렌더링을 다시 선택하십시오.

11. 나타나는 텍스트 대화 상자에서 다른 이름으로 저장 버튼을 선택하여 출력을 텍스트 파일로 저장할 수 있습니다.

12. 출력 창을 닫으려면 계속을 선택하십시오.

텍스트 출력

1.Analyze -> Text Output 탭을 선택하십시오.

2.텍스트 출력 은 셀별 데이터 ( 다시 시작 또는 선택됨 ) 만 출력 할 수 있고 (구성 요소, 측정 스테이션 또는 글로벌 데이터 없음) 둘 이상의 셀을 선택할 수 있다는 점을 제외하고 프로브 탭 과 동일한 방식으로 작동합니다. 각 플롯 시간에 대한 출력 데이터. 셀은 슬라이더를 사용하여 3D 블록에서 선택됩니다. 기본 공간 범위는 전체 도메인으로 설정됩니다.

3.직접 텍스트 데이터를 출력해보십시오.

FLOW-3D 및TruVOF는 미국 및 기타 국가에서 등록 상표입니다.

Casting Case Study

금속 주조물의 결함을 식별하고, 가볍고 튼튼한 주조 부품을 위해 새로운 재료로 부품을 설계하거나, 최적의 설계를 위해 반복적인 설계 작업을 수행하는 것은 고객이 당사의 소프트웨어를 사용하여 작업 요구 사항을 충족하고, 고철 비율을 줄임으로써 조직의 비용을 절감하는 일부 방법입니다.

이를 통해 제품 개발 시간을 단축함으로써 제품의 시장 출시 및 경쟁 우위를 위한 시간 확보가 용이해 집니다.

Tag: Gravity

해저 산사태 쓰나미의 최대 초기 파동 진폭 추정: 3차원 모델링 접근법

Highlights

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction and literature review

2. Data and methods

2.1. Physical experiments

2.2. Numerical simulations applying FLOW-3D hydro

2.3. Validation

2.4. The dataset

2.5. Landslide velocity

2.6. Effect of air entrainment

3. Results

3.1. Wave generation and propagation

3.2. Influence of landslide parameters on tsunami amplitude

3.3. Predictive equation

4. Conclusions

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of competing interest

Funding

Acknowledgements

Data availability

References

번역된 기고 제목: 해류의 영향에 따른 어뢰 앵커 설치의 유체 역학 특성에 대한 수치 분석

Abstract

다양한 기질 수준 변화를 갖는 침식성 층 위의 댐 파손 흐름에 대한 수치 조사

Abstract

Keywords

REFERENCES

I. INTRODUCTION

II. MODELING

A. 3D powder bed modeling

1. DEM

2. Model building

B. Modeling of fluid mechanics simulation

1. VOF

2. Control equations and boundary conditions

3. Assumptions

4. Initial conditions

5. Material parameters

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A. Single-track simulation

B. Double-track simulation

C. Simulation analysis of molten pool under different process parameters

1. Laser power

2. Scanning speed

3. Hatch spacing

D. Simulation analysis of molten pool with powder particle size and laser focal spot diameter

IV. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Governing equations

Verification of numerical model

Conclusions

Author contributions

Uncited References

Declaration of competing interest

References (33)

Review on Blood Flow Dynamics in Lab-on-a-Chip Systems: An Engineering Perspective

Abstract

1. Introduction

1.1. Microfluidic Flow in Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) Systems

1.2. Engineering Approach of Microfluidic Transport Phenomena in LOC Systems

1.3. Scope of the Review

2. Blood Flow Phenomena

2.1. Physiological Blood Flow Behavior

2.1.1. RBC Aggregation

2.1.2. Fåhræus-Lindqvist Effect

2.1.3. Cell-Free Layer Formation

2.1.4. Plasma Skimming in Bifurcation Networks

2.2. Modeling on Blood Flow Dynamics

2.2.1. Blood Properties and Mathematical Models of Blood Rheology

2.2.2. Numerical Methods (FDM, FEM, FVM)

2.2.3. Modeling Methods of Blood Flow Dynamics

3. Capillary Driven Blood Flow in LOC Systems

3.1. Capillary Driven Flow Phenomena

3.2. Theoretical and Numerical Modeling of Capillary Driven Blood Flow