[태그:] Particle

Abstract

This paper presents the results of tests on the suitability of designed heads (impellers) for aluminum refining. The research was carried out on a physical model of the URO-200, followed by numerical simulations in the FLOW 3D program. Four design variants of impellers were used in the study. The degree of dispersion of the gas phase in the model liquid was used as a criterion for evaluating the performance of each solution using different process parameters, i.e., gas flow rate and impeller speed. Afterward, numerical simulations in Flow 3D software were conducted for the best solution. These simulations confirmed the results obtained with the water model and verified them.

Keywords: aluminum, impeller construction, degassing process, numerical modeling, physical modeling

1. Introduction

Constantly increasing requirements concerning metallurgical purity in terms of hydrogen content and nonmetallic inclusions make casting manufacturers use effective refining techniques. The answer to this demand is the implementation of the aluminum refining technique making use of a rotor with an original design guaranteeing efficient refining [1,2,3,4]. The main task of the impeller (rotor) is to reduce the contamination of liquid metal (primary and recycled aluminum) with hydrogen and nonmetallic inclusions. An inert gas, mainly argon or a mixture of gases, is introduced through the rotor into the liquid metal to bring both hydrogen and nonmetallic inclusions to the metal surface through the flotation process. Appropriately and uniformly distributed gas bubbles in the liquid metal guarantee achieving the assumed level of contaminant removal economically. A very important factor in deciding about the obtained degassing effect is the optimal rotor design [5,6,7,8]. Thanks to the appropriate geometry of the rotor, gas bubbles introduced into the liquid metal are split into smaller ones, and the spinning movement of the rotor distributes them throughout the volume of the liquid metal bath. In this solution impurities in the liquid metal are removed both in the volume and from the upper surface of the metal. With a well-designed impeller, the costs of refining aluminum and its alloys can be lowered thanks to the reduced inert gas and energy consumption (optimal selection of rotor rotational speed). Shorter processing time and a high degree of dehydrogenation decrease the formation of dross on the metal surface (waste). A bigger produced dross leads to bigger process losses. Consequently, this means that the choice of rotor geometry has an indirect impact on the degree to which the generated waste is reduced [9,10].

Another equally important factor is the selection of process parameters such as gas flow rate and rotor speed [11,12]. A well-designed gas injection system for liquid metal meets two key requirements; it causes rapid mixing of the liquid metal to maintain a uniform temperature throughout the volume and during the entire process, to produce a chemically homogeneous metal composition. This solution ensures effective degassing of the metal bath. Therefore, the shape of the rotor, the arrangement of the nozzles, and their number are significant design parameters that guarantee the optimum course of the refining process. It is equally important to complete the mixing of the metal bath in a relatively short time, as this considerably shortens the refining process and, consequently, reduces the process costs. Another important criterion conditioning the implementation of the developed rotor is the generation of fine diffused gas bubbles which are distributed throughout the metal volume, and whose residence time will be sufficient for the bubbles to collide and adsorb the contaminants. The process of bubble formation by the spinning rotors differs from that in the nozzles or porous molders. In the case of a spinning rotor, the shear force generated by the rotor motion splits the bubbles into smaller ones. Here, the rotational speed, mixing force, surface tension, and fluid density have a key effect on the bubble size. The velocity of the bubbles, which depends mainly on their size and shape, determines their residence time in the reactor and is, therefore, very important for the refining process, especially since gas bubbles in liquid aluminum may remain steady only below a certain size [13,14,15].

The impeller designs presented in the article were developed to improve the efficiency of the process and reduce its costs. The impellers used so far have a complicated structure and are very pricey. The success of the conducted research will allow small companies to become independent of external supplies through the possibility of making simple and effective impellers on their own. The developed structures were tested on the water model. The results of this study can be considered as pilot.

2. Materials and Methods

Rotors were realized with the SolidWorks computer design technique and a 3D printer. The developed designs were tested on a water model. Afterward, the solution with the most advantageous refining parameters was selected and subjected to calculations with the Flow3D package. As a result, an impeller was designed for aluminum refining. Its principal lies in an even distribution of gas bubbles in the entire volume of liquid metal, with the largest possible participation of the bubble surface, without disturbing the metal surface. This procedure guarantees the removal of gaseous, as well as metallic and nonmetallic, impurities.

2.1. Rotor Designs

The developed impeller constructions, shown in Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, were printed on a 3D printer using the PLA (polylactide) material. The impeller design models differ in their shape and the number of holes through which the inert gas flows. Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the same impeller model but with a different number of gas outlets. The arrangement of four, eight, and 12 outlet holes was adopted in the developed design. A triangle-shaped structure equipped with three gas outlet holes is presented in Figure 4.

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Figure 1

A 3D model—impeller with four holes—variant B4.

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Figure 2

A 3D model—impeller with eight holes—variant B8.

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Figure 3

A 3D model—impeller with twelve holes—variant B12.

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Figure 4

A 3D model—‘red triangle’ impeller with three holes—variant RT3.

2.2. Physical Models

Investigations were carried out on a water model of the URO 200 reactor of the barbotage refining process (see Figure 5).

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Figure 5

A schematic of the water model of reactor URO 200.

The URO 200 reactor can be classified as a cyclic reactor. The main element of the device is a rotor, which ends the impeller. The whole system is attached to a shaft via which the refining gas is supplied. Then, the shaft with the rotor is immersed in the liquid metal in the melting pot or the furnace chamber. In URO 200 reactors, the refining process lasts 600 s (10 min), the gas flow rate that can be obtained ranges from 5 to 20 dm³·min⁻¹, and the speed at which the rotor can move is 0 to 400 rpm. The permissible quantity of liquid metal for barbotage refining is 300 kg or 700 kg [8,16,17]. The URO 200 has several design solutions which improve operation and can be adapted to the existing equipment in the foundry. These solutions include the following [8,16]:

URO-200XR—used for small crucible furnaces, the capacity of which does not exceed 250 kg, with no control system and no control of the refining process.
URO-200SA—used to service several crucible furnaces of capacity from 250 kg to 700 kg, fully automated and equipped with a mechanical rotor lift.
URO-200KA—used for refining processes in crucible furnaces and allows refining in a ladle. The process is fully automated, with a hydraulic rotor lift.
URO-200KX—a combination of the XR and KA models, designed for the ladle refining process. Additionally, refining in heated crucibles is possible. The unit is equipped with a manual hydraulic rotor lift.
URO-200PA—designed to cooperate with induction or crucible furnaces or intermediate chambers, the capacity of which does not exceed one ton. This unit is an integral part of the furnace. The rotor lift is equipped with a screw drive.

Studies making use of a physical model can be associated with the observation of the flow and circulation of gas bubbles. They require meeting several criteria regarding the similarity of the process and the object characteristics. The similarity conditions mainly include geometric, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and kinetic parameters. During simulation of aluminum refining with inert gas, it is necessary to maintain the geometric similarity between the model and the real object, as well as the similarity related to the flow of liquid metal and gas (hydrodynamic similarity). These quantities are characterized by the Reynolds, Weber, and Froude numbers. The Froude number is the most important parameter characterizing the process, its magnitude is the same for the physical model and the real object. Water was used as the medium in the physical modeling. The factors influencing the choice of water are its availability, relatively low cost, and kinematic viscosity at room temperature, which is very close to that of liquid aluminum.

The physical model studies focused on the flow of inert gas in the form of gas bubbles with varying degrees of dispersion, particularly with respect to some flow patterns such as flow in columns and geysers, as well as disturbance of the metal surface. The most important refining parameters are gas flow rate and rotor speed. The barbotage refining studies for the developed impeller (variants B4, B8, B12, and RT3) designs were conducted for the following process parameters:

Rotor speed: 200, 300, 400, and 500 rpm,
Ideal gas flow: 10, 20, and 30 dm³·min⁻¹,
Temperature: 293 K (20 °C).

These studies were aimed at determining the most favorable variants of impellers, which were then verified using the numerical modeling methods in the Flow-3D program.

2.3. Numerical Simulations with Flow-3D Program

Testing different rotor impellers using a physical model allows for observing the phenomena taking place while refining. This is a very important step when testing new design solutions without using expensive industrial trials. Another solution is modeling by means of commercial simulation programs such as ANSYS Fluent or Flow-3D [18,19]. Unlike studies on a physical model, in a computer program, the parameters of the refining process and the object itself, including the impeller design, can be easily modified. The simulations were performed with the Flow-3D program version 12.03.02. A three-dimensional system with the same dimensions as in the physical modeling was used in the calculations. The isothermal flow of liquid–gas bubbles was analyzed. As in the physical model, three speeds were adopted in the numerical tests: 200, 300, and 500 rpm. During the initial phase of the simulations, the velocity field around the rotor generated an appropriate direction of motion for the newly produced bubbles. When the required speed was reached, the generation of randomly distributed bubbles around the rotor was started at a rate of 2000 per second. Table 1 lists the most important simulation parameters.

Table 1

Values of parameters used in the calculations.

Parameter	Value	Unit
Maximum number of gas particles	1,000,000	–
Rate of particle generation	2000	1·s⁻¹
Specific gas constant	287.058	J·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹
Atmospheric pressure	1.013 × 10⁵	Pa
Water density	1000	kg·m⁻³
Water viscosity	0.001	kg·m⁻¹·s⁻¹
Boundary condition on the walls	No-slip	–
Size of computational cell	0.0034	m

In the case of the CFD analysis, the numerical solutions require great care when generating the computational mesh. Therefore, computational mesh tests were performed prior to the CFD calculations. The effect of mesh density was evaluated by taking into account the velocity of water in the tested object on the measurement line A (height of 0.065 m from the bottom) in a characteristic cross-section passing through the object axis (see Figure 6). The mesh contained 3,207,600, 6,311,981, 7,889,512, 11,569,230, and 14,115,049 cells.

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Figure 6

The velocity of the water depending on the size of the computational grid.

The quality of the generated computational meshes was checked using the criterion skewness angle Q_EAS [18]. This criterion is described by the following relationship:

QEAS=max{βmax−βeq180−βeq,βeq−βminβeq},

(1)

where β_max, β_min are the maximal and minimal angles (in degrees) between the edges of the cell, and β_eq is the angle corresponding to an ideal cell, which for cubic cells is 90°.

Normalized in the interval [0;1], the value of Q_EAS should not exceed 0.75, which identifies the permissible skewness angle of the generated mesh. For the computed meshes, this value was equal to 0.55–0.65.

Moreover, when generating the computational grids in the studied facility, they were compacted in the areas of the highest gradients of the calculated values, where higher turbulence is to be expected (near the impeller). The obtained results of water velocity in the studied object at constant gas flow rate are shown in Figure 6.

The analysis of the obtained water velocity distributions (see Figure 6) along the line inside the object revealed that, with the density of the grid of nodal points, the velocity changed and its changes for the test cases of 7,889,512, 11,569,230, and 14,115,049 were insignificant. Therefore, it was assumed that a grid containing not less than 7,900,000 (7,889,512) cells would not affect the result of CFD calculations.

A single-block mesh of regular cells with a size of 0.0034 m was used in the numerical calculations. The total number of cells was approximately 7,900,000 (7,889,512). This grid resolution (see Figure 7) allowed the geometry of the system to be properly represented, maintaining acceptable computation time (about 3 days on a workstation with 2× CPU and 12 computing cores).

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Figure 7

Structured equidistant mesh used in numerical calculations: (a) mesh with smoothed, surface cells (the so-called FAVOR method) used in Flow-3D; (b) visualization of the applied mesh resolution.

The calculations were conducted with an explicit scheme. The timestep was selected by the program automatically and controlled by stability and convergence. From the moment of the initial velocity field generation (start of particle generation), it was 0.0001 s.

When modeling the degassing process, three fluids are present in the system: water, gas supplied through the rotor head (impeller), and the surrounding air. Modeling such a multiphase flow is a numerically very complex issue. The necessity to overcome the liquid backpressure by the gas flowing out from the impeller leads to the formation of numerical instabilities in the volume of fluid (VOF)-based approach used by Flow-3D software. Therefore, a mixed description of the analyzed flow was used here. In this case, water was treated as a continuous medium, while, in the case of gas bubbles, the discrete phase model (DPM) model was applied. The way in which the air surrounding the system was taken into account is later described in detail.

The following additional assumptions were made in the modeling:

—The liquid phase was considered as an incompressible Newtonian fluid.
—The effect of chemical reactions during the refining process was neglected.
—The composition of each phase (gas and liquid) was considered homogeneous; therefore, the viscosity and surface tension were set as constants.
—Only full turbulence existed in the liquid, and the effect of molecular viscosity was neglected.
—The gas bubbles were shaped as perfect spheres.
—The mutual interaction between gas bubbles (particles) was neglected.

2.3.1. Modeling of Liquid Flow

The motion of the real fluid (continuous medium) is described by the Navier–Stokes Equation [20].

dudt=−1ρ∇p+ν∇2u+13ν∇(∇⋅ u)+F,

(2)

where du/dt is the time derivative, u is the velocity vector, t is the time, and F is the term accounting for external forces including gravity (unit components denoted by X, Y, Z).

In the simulations, the fluid flow was assumed to be incompressible, in which case the following equation is applicable:

∂u∂t+(u⋅∇)u=−1ρ∇p+ν∇2u+F.

(3)

Due to the large range of liquid velocities during flows, the turbulence formation process was included in the modeling. For this purpose, the k–ε model turbulence kinetic energy k and turbulence dissipation ε were the target parameters, as expressed by the following equations [21]:

∂(ρk)∂t+∂(ρkvi)∂xi=∂∂xj[(μ+μtσk)⋅∂k∂xi]+Gk+Gb−ρε−Ym+Sk,

(4)

∂(ρε)∂t+∂(ρεui)∂xi=∂∂xj[(μ+μtσε)⋅∂k∂xi]+C1εεk(Gk+G3εGb)+C2ερε2k+Sε,

(5)

where ρ is the gas density, σ_κ and σ_ε are the Prandtl turbulence numbers, k and ε are constants of 1.0 and 1.3, and G_k and G_b are the kinetic energy of turbulence generated by the average velocity and buoyancy, respectively.

As mentioned earlier, there are two gas phases in the considered problem. In addition to the gas bubbles, which are treated here as particles, there is also air, which surrounds the system. The boundary of phase separation is in this case the free surface of the water. The shape of the free surface can change as a result of the forming velocity field in the liquid. Therefore, it is necessary to use an appropriate approach to free surface tracking. The most commonly used concept in liquid–gas flow modeling is the volume of fluid (VOF) method [22,23], and Flow-3D uses a modified version of this method called TrueVOF. It introduces the concept of the volume fraction of the liquid phase f_l. This parameter can be used for classifying the cells of a discrete grid into areas filled with liquid phase (f_l = 1), gaseous phase, or empty cells (f_l = 0) and those through which the phase separation boundary (f_l ∈ (0, 1)) passes (free surface). To determine the local variations of the liquid phase fraction, it is necessary to solve the following continuity equation:

dfldt=0.

(6)

Then, the fluid parameters in the region of coexistence of the two phases (the so-called interface) depend on the volume fraction of each phase.

ρ=flρl+(1−fl)ρg,

(7)

ν=flνl+(1−fl)νg,

(8)

where indices l and g refer to the liquid and gaseous phases, respectively.

The parameter of fluid velocity in cells containing both phases is also determined in the same way.

u=flul+(1−fl)ug.

(9)

Since the processes taking place in the surrounding air can be omitted, to speed up the calculations, a single-phase, free-surface model was used. This means that no calculations were performed in the gas cells (they were treated as empty cells). The liquid could fill them freely, and the air surrounding the system was considered by the atmospheric pressure exerted on the free surface. This approach is often used in modeling foundry and metallurgical processes [24].

2.3.2. Modeling of Gas Bubble Flow

As stated, a particle model was used to model bubble flow. Spherical particles (gas bubbles) of a given size were randomly generated in the area marked with green in Figure 7b. In the simulations, the gas bubbles were assumed to have diameters of 0.016 and 0.02 m corresponding to the gas flow rates of 10 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹, respectively.

Experimental studies have shown that, as a result of turbulent fluid motion, some of the bubbles may burst, leading to the formation of smaller bubbles, although merging of bubbles into larger groupings may also occur. Therefore, to be able to observe the behavior of bubbles of different sizes (diameter), the calculations generated two additional particle types with diameters twice smaller and twice larger, respectively. The proportion of each species in the system was set to 33.33% (Table 2).

Table 2

Data assumed for calculations.

No	Rotor Speed (Rotational Speed) rpm	Bubbles Diameter m	Corresponding Gas Flow Rate dm³·min⁻¹	No	Rotor Speed (Rotational Speed) rpm	Bubbles Diameter m	Corresponding Gas Flow Rate dm³·min⁻¹
A	200	0.016	10	D	200	0.02	30
0.008	0.01
0.032	0.04
B	300	0.016	10	E	300	0.02	30
0.008	0.01
0.032	0.04
C	500	0.016	10	F	500	0.02	30
0.008	0.01
0.032	0.04

The velocity of the particle results from the generated velocity field (calculated from Equation (3) in the liquid ul around it and its velocity resulting from the buoyancy force ub. The effect of particle radius r on the terminal velocity associated with buoyancy force can be determined according to Stokes’ law.

ub=29 (ρg−ρl)μlgr2,

(10)

where g is the acceleration (9.81).

The DPM model was used for modeling the two-phase (water–air) flow. In this model, the fluid (water) is treated as a continuous phase and described by the Navier–Stokes equation, while gas bubbles are particles flowing in the model fluid (discrete phase). The trajectories of each bubble in the DPM system are calculated at each timestep taking into account the mass forces acting on it. Table 3 characterizes the DPM model used in our own research [18].

Table 3

Characteristic of the DPM model.

Method	Equations
Euler–Lagrange	Balance equation: dugdt=FD(u−ug)+g(ϱg−ϱ)ϱg+F. F_D (u − u_p) denotes the drag forces per mass unit of a bubble, and the expression for the drag coefficient F_D is of the form FD=18μCDReϱ⋅gd2g24. The relative Reynolds number has the form Re≡ρdg\|ug−u\|μ. On the other hand, the force resulting from the additional acceleration of the model fluid has the form F=12dρdtρg(u−ug), where u_g is the gas bubble velocity, u is the liquid velocity, d_g is the bubble diameter, and C_D is the drag coefficient.

Method

Equations

Euler–Lagrange

Balance equation:
dugdt=FD(u−ug)+g(ϱg−ϱ)ϱg+F.
F_D (u − u_p) denotes the drag forces per mass unit of a bubble, and the expression for the drag coefficient F_D is of the form
FD=18μCDReϱ⋅gd2g24.
The relative Reynolds number has the form
Re≡ρdg|ug−u|μ.
On the other hand, the force resulting from the additional acceleration of the model fluid has the form
F=12dρdtρg(u−ug),
where u_g is the gas bubble velocity, u is the liquid velocity, d_g is the bubble diameter, and C_D is the drag coefficient.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Calculations of Power and Mixing Time by the Flowing Gas Bubbles

One of the most important parameters of refining with a rotor is the mixing power induced by the spinning rotor and the outflowing gas bubbles (via impeller). The mixing power of liquid metal in a ladle of height (h) by gas injection can be determined from the following relation [15]:

pgVm=ρ⋅g⋅uB,

(11)

where p_g is the mixing power, V_m is the volume of liquid metal in the reactor, ρ is the density of liquid aluminum, and u_B is the average speed of bubbles, given below.

uB=n⋅R⋅TAc⋅Pm⋅t,

(12)

where n is the number of gas moles, R is the gas constant (8.314), A_c is the cross-sectional area of the reactor vessel, T is the temperature of liquid aluminum in the reactor, and P_m is the pressure at the middle tank level. The pressure at the middle level of the tank is calculated by a function of the mean logarithmic difference.

Pm=(Pa+ρ⋅g⋅h)−Paln(Pa+ρ⋅g⋅h)Pa,

(13)

where P_a is the atmospheric pressure, and h is the the height of metal in the reactor.

Themelis and Goyal [25] developed a model for calculating mixing power delivered by gas injection.

pg=2Q⋅R⋅T⋅ln(1+m⋅ρ⋅g⋅hP),

(14)

where Q is the gas flow, and m is the mass of liquid metal.

Zhang [26] proposed a model taking into account the temperature difference between gas and alloy (metal).

pg=QRTgVm[ln(1+ρ⋅g⋅hPa)+(1−TTg)],

(15)

where T_g is the gas temperature at the entry point.

Data for calculating the mixing power resulting from inert gas injection into liquid aluminum are given below in Table 4. The design parameters were adopted for the model, the parameters of which are shown in Figure 5.

Table 4

Data for calculating mixing power introduced by an inert gas.

Parameter	Value	Unit
Height of metal column	0.7	m
Density of aluminum	2375	kg·m⁻³
Process duration	20	s
Gas temperature at the injection site	940	K
Cross-sectional area of ladle	0.448	m²
Mass of liquid aluminum	546.25	kg
Volume of ladle	0.23	M³
Temperature of liquid aluminum	941.15	K

Table 5 presents the results of mixing power calculations according to the models of Themelis and Goyal and of Zhang for inert gas flows of 10, 20, and 30 dm³·min⁻¹. The obtained calculation results significantly differed from each other. The difference was an order of magnitude, which indicates that the model is highly inaccurate without considering the temperature of the injected gas. Moreover, the calculations apply to the case when the mixing was performed only by the flowing gas bubbles, without using a rotor, which is a great simplification of the phenomenon.

Table 5

Mixing power calculated from mathematical models.

Mathematical Model	Mixing Power (W·t⁻¹) for a Given Inert Gas Flow (dm³·min⁻¹)
	10	20	30
Themelis and Goyal	11.49	23.33	35.03
Zhang	0.82	1.66	2.49

The mixing time is defined as the time required to achieve 95% complete mixing of liquid metal in the ladle [27,28,29,30]. Table 6 groups together equations for the mixing time according to the models.

Table 6

Models for calculating mixing time.

Authors	Model	Remarks
Szekely [31]	τ=800ε−0.4	ε—W·t⁻¹
Chiti and Paglianti [27]	τ=CVQl	V—volume of reactor, m³ Ql—flow intensity, m³·s⁻¹
Iguchi and Nakamura [32]	τ=1200⋅Q−0.4D1.97h−1.0υ0.47	υ—kinematic viscosity, m²·s⁻¹ D—diameter of ladle, m h—height of metal column, m Q—liquid flow intensity, m³·s⁻¹

Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the mixing time as a function of gas flow rate for various heights of the liquid column in the ladle and mixing power values.

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Figure 8

Mixing time as a function of gas flow rate for various heights of the metal column (Iguchi and Nakamura model).

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Figure 9

Mixing time as a function of mixing power (Szekly model).

3.2. Determining the Bubble Size

The mechanisms controlling bubble size and mass transfer in an alloy undergoing refining are complex. Strong mixing conditions in the reactor promote impurity mass transfer. In the case of a spinning rotor, the shear force generated by the rotor motion separates the bubbles into smaller bubbles. Rotational speed, mixing force, surface tension, and liquid density have a strong influence on the bubble size. To characterize the kinetic state of the refining process, parameters k and A were introduced. Parameters k, A, and u_B can be calculated using the below equations [33].

k=2D⋅uBdB⋅π−−−−−−√,

(16)

A=6Q⋅hdB⋅uB,

(17)

uB=1.02g⋅dB,−−−−−√

(18)

where D is the diffusion coefficient, and d_B is the bubble diameter.

After substituting appropriate values, we get

dB=3.03×104(πD)−2/5g−1/5h4/5Q0.344N−1.48.

(19)

According to the last equation, the size of the gas bubble decreases with the increasing rotational speed (see Figure 10).

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Figure 10

Effect of rotational speed on the bubble diameter.

In a flow of given turbulence intensity, the diameter of the bubble does not exceed the maximum size d_max, which is inversely proportional to the rate of kinetic energy dissipation in a viscous flow ε. The size of the gas bubble diameter as a function of the mixing energy, also considering the Weber number and the mixing energy in the negative power, can be determined from the following equations [31,34]:

—Sevik and Park:

dBmax=We0.6kr⋅(σ⋅103ρ⋅10−3)0.6⋅(10⋅ε)−0.4⋅10−2.

(20)

—Evans:

dBmax=⎡⎣Wekr⋅σ⋅1032⋅(ρ⋅10−3)13⎤⎦35 ⋅(10⋅ε)−25⋅10−2.

(21)

The results of calculating the maximum diameter of the bubble d_Bmax determined from Equation (21) are given in Table 7.

Table 7

The results of calculating the maximum diameter of the bubble using Equation (21).

Model	Mixing Energy ĺ (m²·s⁻³)	Weber Number (We_kr)
0.59	1.0	1.2
Zhang and Taniguchi d_max	0.1	0.0167	0.0230	0.026
0.5	0.0088	0.0121	0.013
1.0	0.0067	0.0091	0.010
1.5	0.0057	0.0078	0.009
Sevik and Park d_B_max	0.1	0.265	0.36	0.41
0.5	0.139	0.19	0.21
1.0	0.106	0.14	0.16
1.5	0.090	0.12	0.14
Evans d_B_max	0.1	0.247	0.340	0.38
0.5	0.130	0.178	0.20
1.0	0.098	0.135	0.15
1.5	0.084	0.115	0.13

3.3. Physical Modeling

The first stage of experiments (using the URO-200 water model) included conducting experiments with impellers equipped with four, eight, and 12 gas outlets (variants B4, B8, B12). The tests were carried out for different process parameters. Selected results for these experiments are presented in Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14.

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Figure 11

Impeller variant B4—gas bubbles dispersion registered for a gas flow rate of 10 dm³·min⁻¹ and rotor speed of (a) 200, (b) 300, (c) 400, and (d) 500 rpm.

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Figure 12

Impeller variant B8—gas bubbles dispersion registered for a gas flow rate of 10 dm³·min⁻¹ and rotor speed of (a) 200, (b) 300, (c) 400, and (d) 500 rpm.

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Figure 13

Gas bubble dispersion registered for different processing parameters (impeller variant B12).

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Figure 14

Gas bubble dispersion registered for different processing parameters (impeller variant RT3).

The analysis of the refining variants presented in Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14 reveals that the proposed impellers design model is not useful for the aluminum refining process. The number of gas outlet orifices, rotational speed, and flow did not affect the refining efficiency. In all the variants shown in the figures, very poor dispersion of gas bubbles was observed in the object. The gas bubble flow had a columnar character, and so-called dead zones, i.e., areas where no inert gas bubbles are present, were visible in the analyzed object. Such dead zones were located in the bottom and side zones of the ladle, while the flow of bubbles occurred near the turning rotor. Another negative phenomenon observed was a significant agitation of the water surface due to excessive (rotational) rotor speed and gas flow (see Figure 13, cases 20; 400, 30; 300, 30; 400, and 30; 500).

Research results for a ‘red triangle’ impeller equipped with three gas supply orifices (variant RT3) are presented in Figure 14.

In this impeller design, a uniform degree of bubble dispersion in the entire volume of the modeling fluid was achieved for most cases presented (see Figure 14). In all tested variants, single bubbles were observed in the area of the water surface in the vessel. For variants 20; 200, 30; 200, and 20; 300 shown in Figure 14, the bubble dispersion results were the worst as the so-called dead zones were identified in the area near the bottom and sidewalls of the vessel, which disqualifies these work parameters for further applications. Interestingly, areas where swirls and gas bubble chains formed were identified only for the inert gas flows of 20 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm in the analyzed model. This means that the presented model had the best performance in terms of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid. Its design with sharp edges also differed from previously analyzed models, which is beneficial for gas bubble dispersion, but may interfere with its suitability in industrial conditions due to possible premature wear.

3.4. Qualitative Comparison of Research Results (CFD and Physical Model)

The analysis (physical modeling) revealed that the best mixing efficiency results were obtained with the RT3 impeller variant. Therefore, numerical calculations were carried out for the impeller model with three outlet orifices (variant RT3). The CFD results are presented in Figure 15 and Figure 16.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is materials-15-05273-g015.jpg

Figure 15

Simulation results of the impeller RT3, for given flows and rotational speeds after a time of 1 s: simulation variants (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) D, (e) E, and (f) F.

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Object name is materials-15-05273-g016.jpg

Figure 16

Simulation results of the impeller RT3, for given flows and rotational speeds after a time of 5.4 s.: simulation variants (a) A, (b) B, (c) C, (d) D, (e) E, and (f) F.

CFD results are presented for all analyzed variants (impeller RT3) at two selected calculation timesteps of 1 and 5.40 s. They show the velocity field of the medium (water) and the dispersion of gas bubbles.

Figure 15 shows the initial refining phase after 1 s of the process. In this case, the gas bubble formation and flow were observed in an area close to contact with the rotor. Figure 16 shows the phase when the dispersion and flow of gas bubbles were advanced in the reactor area of the URO-200 model.

The quantitative evaluation of the obtained results of physical and numerical model tests was based on the comparison of the degree of gas dispersion in the model liquid. The degree of gas bubble dispersion in the volume of the model liquid and the areas of strong turbulent zones formation were evaluated during the analysis of the results of visualization and numerical simulations. These two effects sufficiently characterize the required course of the process from the physical point of view. The known scheme of the below description was adopted as a basic criterion for the evaluation of the degree of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid.

Minimal dispersion—single bubbles ascending in the region of their formation along the ladle axis; lack of mixing in the whole bath volume.
Accurate dispersion—single and well-mixed bubbles ascending toward the bath mirror in the region of the ladle axis; no dispersion near the walls and in the lower part of the ladle.
Uniform dispersion—most desirable; very good mixing of fine bubbles with model liquid.
Excessive dispersion—bubbles join together to form chains; large turbulence zones; uneven flow of gas.

The numerical simulation results give a good agreement with the experiments performed with the physical model. For all studied variants (used process parameters), the single bubbles were observed in the area of water surface in the vessel. For variants presented in Figure 13 (200 rpm, gas flow 20 and dm³·min⁻¹) and relevant examples in numerical simulation Figure 16, the worst bubble dispersion results were obtained because the dead zones were identified in the area near the bottom and sidewalls of the vessel, which disqualifies these work parameters for further use. The areas where swirls and gas bubble chains formed were identified only for the inert gas flows of 20 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm in the analyzed model (physical model). This means that the presented impeller model had the best performance in terms of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid. The worst bubble dispersion results were obtained because the dead zones were identified in the area near the bottom and side walls of the vessel, which disqualifies these work parameters for further use.

Figure 17 presents exemplary results of model tests (CFD and physical model) with marked gas bubble dispersion zones. All variants of tests were analogously compared, and this comparison allowed validating the numerical model.

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Object name is materials-15-05273-g017.jpg

Figure 17

Compilations of model research results (CFD and physical): A—single gas bubbles formed on the surface of the modeling liquid, B—excessive formation of gas chains and swirls, C—uniform distribution of gas bubbles in the entire volume of the tank, and D—dead zones without gas bubbles, no dispersion. (a) Variant B; (b) variant F.

It should be mentioned here that, in numerical simulations, it is necessary to make certain assumptions and simplifications. The calculations assumed three particle size classes (Table 2), which represent the different gas bubbles that form due to different gas flow rates. The maximum number of particles/bubbles (Table 1) generated was assumed in advance and related to the computational capabilities of the computer. Too many particles can also make it difficult to visualize and analyze the results. The size of the particles, of course, affects their behavior during simulation, while, in the figures provided in the article, the bubbles are represented by spheres (visualization of the results) of the same size. Please note that, due to the adopted Lagrangian–Eulerian approach, the simulation did not take into account phenomena such as bubble collapse or fusion. However, the obtained results allow a comprehensive analysis of the behavior of gas bubbles in the system under consideration.

The comparative analysis of the visualization (quantitative) results obtained with the water model and CFD simulations (see Figure 17) generated a sufficient agreement from the point of view of the trends. A precise quantitative evaluation is difficult to perform because of the lack of a refraction compensating system in the water model. Furthermore, in numerical simulations, it is not possible to determine the geometry of the forming gas bubbles and their interaction with each other as opposed to the visualization in the water model. The use of both research methods is complementary. Thus, a direct comparison of images obtained by the two methods requires appropriate interpretation. However, such an assessment gives the possibility to qualitatively determine the types of the present gas bubble dispersion, thus ultimately validating the CFD results with the water model.

A summary of the visualization results for impellers RT3, i.e., analysis of the occurring gas bubble dispersion types, is presented in Table 8.

Table 8

Summary of visualization results (impeller RT3)—different types of gas bubble dispersion.

No Exp.	A	B	C	D	E	F
Gas flow rate, dm³·min⁻¹	10	30
Impeller speed, rpm	200	300	500	200	300	500
Type of dispersion	Accurate	Uniform	Uniform/excessive	Minimal	Excessive	Excessive

Tests carried out for impeller RT3 confirmed the high efficiency of gas bubble distribution in the volume of the tested object at a low inert gas flow rate of 10 dm³·min⁻¹. The most optimal variant was variant B (300 rpm, 10 dm³·min⁻¹). However, the other variants A and C (gas flow rate 10 dm³·min⁻¹) seemed to be favorable for this type of impeller and are recommended for further testing. The above process parameters will be analyzed in detail in a quantitative analysis to be performed on the basis of the obtained efficiency curves of the degassing process (oxygen removal). This analysis will give an unambiguous answer as to which process parameters are the most optimal for this type of impeller; the results are planned for publication in the next article.

It should also be noted here that the high agreement between the results of numerical calculations and physical modelling prompts a conclusion that the proposed approach to the simulation of a degassing process which consists of a single-phase flow model with a free surface and a particle flow model is appropriate. The simulation results enable us to understand how the velocity field in the fluid is formed and to analyze the distribution of gas bubbles in the system. The simulations in Flow-3D software can, therefore, be useful for both the design of the impeller geometry and the selection of process parameters.

4. Conclusions

The results of experiments carried out on the physical model of the device for the simulation of barbotage refining of aluminum revealed that the worst results in terms of distribution and dispersion of gas bubbles in the studied object were obtained for the black impellers variants B4, B8, and B12 (multi-orifice impellers—four, eight, and 12 outlet holes, respectively).

In this case, the control of flow, speed, and number of gas exit orifices did not improve the process efficiency, and the developed design did not meet the criteria for industrial tests. In the case of the ‘red triangle’ impeller (variant RT3), uniform gas bubble dispersion was achieved throughout the volume of the modeling fluid for most of the tested variants. The worst bubble dispersion results due to the occurrence of the so-called dead zones in the area near the bottom and sidewalls of the vessel were obtained for the flow variants of 20 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm. For the analyzed model, areas where swirls and gas bubble chains were formed were found only for the inert gas flow of 20 and 30 dm³·min⁻¹ and 200 rpm. The model impeller (variant RT3) had the best performance compared to the previously presented impellers in terms of dispersion of gas bubbles in the model liquid. Moreover, its design differed from previously presented models because of its sharp edges. This can be advantageous for gas bubble dispersion, but may negatively affect its suitability in industrial conditions due to premature wearing.

The CFD simulation results confirmed the results obtained from the experiments performed on the physical model. The numerical simulation of the operation of the ‘red triangle’ impeller model (using Flow-3D software) gave good agreement with the experiments performed on the physical model. This means that the presented model impeller, as compared to other (analyzed) designs, had the best performance in terms of gas bubble dispersion in the model liquid.

In further work, the developed numerical model is planned to be used for CFD simulations of the gas bubble distribution process taking into account physicochemical parameters of liquid aluminum based on industrial tests. Consequently, the obtained results may be implemented in production practice.

Funding Statement

This paper was created with the financial support grants from the AGH-UST, Faculty of Foundry Engineering, Poland (16.16.170.654 and 11/990/BK_22/0083) for the Faculty of Materials Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Poland.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.K. and D.K.; methodology, J.P. and T.M.; validation, M.S. and S.G.; formal analysis, D.K. and T.M.; investigation, J.P., K.K. and S.G.; resources, M.S., J.P. and K.K.; writing—original draft preparation, D.K. and T.M.; writing—review and editing, D.K. and T.M.; visualization, J.P., K.K. and S.G.; supervision, D.K.; funding acquisition, D.K. and T.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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원문 보기

Development of macro-defect-free PBF-EB-processed Ti–6Al–4V alloys with superior plasticity using PREP-synthesized powder and machine learning-assisted process optimization

Yunwei Gui^abKenta Aoyagi^bAkihiko Chiba^b
^aDepartment of Materials Processing, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6 Aramaki Aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
^bInstitute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan

Received 14 October 2022, Revised 23 December 2022, Accepted 3 January 2023, Available online 5 January 2023.Show lessAdd to MendeleyShareCite

Abstract

The elimination of internal macro-defects is a key issue in Ti–6Al–4V alloys fabricated via powder bed fusion using electron beams (PBF-EB), wherein internal macro-defects mainly originate from the virgin powder and inappropriate printing parameters. This study compares different types powders by combining support vector machine techniques to determine the most suitable powder for PBF-EB and to predict the processing window for the printing parameters without internal macro-defects. The results show that powders fabricated via plasma rotating electrode process have the best sphericity, flowability, and minimal porosity and are most suitable for printing. Surface roughness criterion was also applied to determine the quality of the even surfaces, and support vector machine was used to construct processing maps capable of predicting a wide range of four-dimensional printing parameters to obtain macro-defect-free samples, offering the possibility of subsequent development of Ti–6Al–4V alloys with excellent properties. The macro-defect-free samples exhibited good elongation, with the best overall mechanical properties being the ultimate tensile strength and elongation of 934.7 MPa and 24.3%, respectively. The elongation of the three macro-defect-free samples was much higher than that previously reported for additively manufactured Ti–6Al–4V alloys. The high elongation of the samples in this work is mainly attributed to the elimination of internal macro-defects.

Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies can rapidly manufacture complex or custom parts, reducing process steps and saving manufacturing time [[1], [2], [3], [4]], and are widely used in the aerospace, automotive, and other precision industries [5,6]. Powder bed fusion using an electron beam (PBF-EB) is an additive manufacturing method that uses a high-energy electron beam to melt metal powders layer by layer to produce parts. In contrast to selective laser melting, PBF-EB involves the preparation of samples in a high vacuum environment, which effectively prevents the introduction of impurities such as O and N. It also involves a preheating process for the print substrate and powder, which reduces residual thermal stress on the sample and subsequent heat treatment processes [[2], [3], [4],7]. Due to these features and advantages, PBF-EB technology is a very important AM technology with great potential in metallic materials. Moreover, PBF-EB is the ideal AM technology for the manufacture of complex components made of many alloys, such as titanium alloys, nickel-based superalloys, aluminum alloys and stainless steels [[2], [3], [4],8].

Ti–6Al–4V alloy is one of the prevalent commercial titanium alloys possessing high specific strength, excellent mechanical properties, excellent corrosion resistance, and good biocompatibility [9,10]. It is widely used in applications requiring low density and excellent corrosion resistance, such as the aerospace industry and biomechanical applications [11,12]. The mechanical properties of PBF-EB-processed Ti–6Al–4V alloys are superior to those fabricated by casting or forging, because the rapid cooling rate in PBF-EB results in finer grains [[12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18]]. However, the PBF-EB-fabricated parts often include internal macro-defects, which compromises their mechanical properties [[19], [20], [21], [22]]. This study focused on the elimination of macro-defects, such as porosity, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration and unmelted powders, which distinguishes them from micro-defects such as vacancies, dislocations, grain boundaries and secondary phases, etc. Large-sized fusion defects cause a severe reduction in mechanical strength. Smaller defects, such as pores and cracks, lead to the initiation of fatigue cracking and rapidly accelerate the cracking process [23]. The issue of internal macro-defects must be addressed to expand the application of the PBF-EB technology. The main studies for controlling internal macro-defects are online monitoring of defects, remelting and hot isostatic pressing (HIP). The literatures [24,25] report the use of infrared imaging or other imaging techniques to identify defects, but the monitoring of smaller sized defects is still not adequate. And in some cases remelting does not reduce the internal macro-defects of the part, but instead causes coarsening of the macrostructure and volatilization of some metal elements [23]. The HIP treatment does not completely eliminate the internal macro-defects, the original defect location may still act as a point of origin of the crack, and the subsequent treatment will consume more time and economic costs [23]. Therefore, optimizing suitable printing parameters to avoid internal macro-defects in printed parts at source is of great industrial value and research significance, and is an urgent issue in PBF-EB related technology.

There are two causes of internal macro-defects in the AM process: gas pores trapped in the virgin powder and the inappropriate printing parameters [7,23]. Gui et al. [26] classify internal macro-defects during PBF-EB process according to their shape, such as spherical defects, elongated shape defects, flat shape defects and other irregular shape defects. Of these, spherical defects mainly originate from raw material powders. Other shape defects mainly originate from lack of fusion or unmelted powders caused by unsuitable printing parameters, etc. The PBF-EB process requires powders with good flowability, and spherical powders are typically chosen as raw materials. The prevalent techniques for the fabrication of pre-alloyed powders are gas atomization (GA), plasma atomization (PA), and the plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) [27,28]. These methods yield powders with different characteristics that affect the subsequent fabrication. The selection of a suitable powder for PBF-EB is particularly important to produce Ti–6Al–4V alloys without internal macro-defects. The need to optimize several printing parameters such as beam current, scan speed, line offset, and focus offset make it difficult to eliminate internal macro-defects that occur during printing [23]. Most of the studies [11,12,22,[29], [30], [31], [32], [33]] on the optimization of AM processes for Ti–6Al–4V alloys have focused on samples with a limited set of parameters (e.g., power–scan speed) and do not allow for the guidance and development of unknown process windows for macro-defect-free samples. In addition, process optimization remains a time-consuming problem, with the traditional ‘trial and error’ method demanding considerable time and economic costs. The development of a simple and efficient method to predict the processing window for alloys without internal macro-defects is a key issue. In recent years, machine learning techniques have increasingly been used in the field of additive manufacturing and materials development [[34], [35], [36], [37]]. Aoyagi et al. [38] recently proposed a novel and efficient method based on a support vector machine (SVM) to optimize the two-dimensional process parameters (current and scan speed) and obtain PBF-EB-processed CoCr alloys without internal macro-defects. The method is one of the potential approaches toward effective optimization of more than two process parameters and makes it possible for the machine learning techniques to accelerate the development of alloys without internal macro-defects.

Herein, we focus on the elimination of internal macro-defects, such as pores, lack of fusion, etc., caused by raw powders and printing parameters. The Ti–6Al–4V powders produced by three different methods were compared, and the powder with the best sphericity, flowability, and minimal porosity was selected as the feedstock for subsequent printing. The relationship between the surface roughness and internal macro-defects in the Ti–6Al–4V components was also investigated. The combination of SVM and surface roughness indices (Sdr) predicted a wider four-dimensional processing window for obtaining Ti–6Al–4V alloys without internal macro-defects. Finally, we investigated the tensile properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloys at room temperature with different printing parameters, as well as the corresponding microstructures and fracture types.

Section snippets

Starting materials

Three types of Ti–6Al–4V alloy powders, produced by GA, PA, and PREP, were compared. The particle size distribution of the powders was determined using a laser particle size analyzer (LS230, Beckman Coulter, USA), and the flowability was measured using a Hall flowmeter (JIS-Z2502, Tsutsui Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd., Japan), according to the ASTM B213 standard. The powder morphology and internal macro-defects were determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL JCM-6000) and X-ray

Comparison of the characteristics of GA, PA, and PREP Ti–6Al–4V powders

The particle size distributions (PSDs) and flowability of the three types of Ti–6Al–4V alloy powders produced by GA, PA, and PREP are shown in Fig. 2. Although the average particle sizes are similar (89.4 μm for GA, 82.5 μm for PA, and 86.1μm for PREP), the particle size range is different for the three types of powder (6.2–174.8 μm for GA, 27.3–139.2 μm for PA, and 39.4–133.9 μm for PREP). The flowability of the GA, PA, and PREP powders was 30.25 ± 0.98, 26.54 ± 0.37, and 25.03 ± 0.22 (s/50

Conclusions

The characteristics of the three types of Ti–6Al–4V alloy powders produced via GA, PA, and PREP were compared. The PREP powder with the best sphericity, flowability, and low porosity was found to be the most favorable powder for subsequent printing of Ti–6Al–4V alloys without internal macro-defects. The quantitative criterion of Sdr <0.015 for even surfaces was also found to be applicable to Ti–6Al–4V alloys. The process maps of Ti–6Al–4V alloys include two regions, high beam current/scan speed

Uncited references

[55]; [56]; [57]; [58]; [59]; [60]; [61]; [62]; [63]; [64]; [65].

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yunwei Gui: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Investigation. Kenta Aoyagi: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Akihiko Chiba: Supervision, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This study was based on the results obtained from project JPNP19007, commissioned by the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO). This work was also supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Proposal No. 21K03801) and the Inter-University Cooperative Research Program (Proposal nos. 18G0418, 19G0411, and 20G0418) of the Cooperative Research and Development Center for Advanced Materials, Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University. It was also supported by the Council for

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Effect of tailwater depth on non-cohesive earth dam failure due to overtopping

범람으로 인한 비점착성 흙댐 붕괴에 대한 테일워터 깊이의 영향

ShaimaaAman^aMohamedAbdelrazek Rezk^bRabieaNasr^c

Abstract

본 연구에서는 범람으로 인한 토사댐 붕괴에 대한 테일워터 깊이의 영향을 실험적으로 조사하였다. 테일워터 깊이의 네 가지 다른 값을 검사합니다. 각 실험에 대해 댐 수심 측량 프로파일의 진화, 고장 기간, 침식 체적 및 유출 수위곡선을 관찰하고 기록합니다.

결과는 tailwater 깊이를 늘리면 고장 시간이 최대 57% 감소하고 상대적으로 침식된 마루 높이가 최대 77.6% 감소한다는 것을 보여줍니다. 또한 상대 배수 깊이가 3, 4, 5인 경우 누적 침식 체적의 감소는 각각 23, 36.5 및 75%인 반면 최대 유출량의 감소는 각각 7, 14 및 17.35%입니다.

실험 결과는 침식 과정을 복제할 때 Flow 3D 소프트웨어의 성능을 평가하는 데 활용됩니다. 수치 모델은 비응집성 흙댐의 침식 과정을 성공적으로 시뮬레이션합니다.

The influence of tailwater depth on earth dam failure due to overtopping is investigated experimentally in this work. Four different values of tailwater depths are examined. For each experiment, the evolution of the dam bathymetry profile, the duration of failure, the eroded volume, and the outflow hydrograph are observed and recorded. The results reveal that increasing the tailwater depth reduces the time of failure by up to 57% and decreases the relative eroded crest height by up to 77.6%. In addition, for relative tailwater depths equal to 3, 4, and 5, the reduction in the cumulative eroded volume is 23, 36.5, and 75%, while the reduction in peak discharge is 7, 14, and 17.35%, respectively. The experimental results are utilized to evaluate the performance of the Flow 3D software in replicating the erosion process. The numerical model successfully simulates the erosion process of non-cohesive earth dams.

Keywords

Earth dam, Eroded volume, Flow 3D model, Non-cohesive soil, Overtopping failure, Tailwater depth

Notation

d₅₀

Mean partical diameterW_c

Optimum water contentZ_o

Dam height (cm)d_o

Tailwater depth (cm)Z_eroded

Eroded height of the dam measured at distance of 0.7 m from the dam heel (cm)t

Total time of failure (sec)t₁

Time of crest width erosion (sec)Z_crest

The crest height (cm)V_total

Total volume of the dam (m³)V_eroded

Cumulative eroded volume (m³)RMSE

The statistical variable root- mean- square errord

Degree of agreement indexy_u.s.

The upstream water depth (cm)y_d.s

The downstream water depth (cm)H

Water surface elevation over sharp crested weir (cm)Q

Outflow discharge (liter/sec)Q_peak

Peak discharge (liter/sec)

1. Introduction

Earth dams are compacted structures composed of natural materials that are usually mined or quarried from local locations. The failures of the earth dams have proven to be deadly, destructive, and costly. According to People’s Daily, two earthen dams, Yong’an Dam and Xinfa Dam located in Hulun Buir City in North China’s Inner Mongolia failed on 2021, due to a surge in the water level of the Nuomin River caused by heavy rain. The dam breach affected 16,660 people, flooded 325,622 mu of farmland (21708.1 ha), and destroyed 22 bridges, 124 culverts, and 15.6 km of roadways. Also, the failure of south fork dam (earth and rock fill dam) near Johnstown on 1889 is considered the worst U.S dam disaster in terms of loss of life. The dam was overtopped and washed away due to unexpected heavy rains, releasing 20 million tons of water which destroyed Johnstown and resulted in 2209 deaths, [1], [2]. Piping or shear sliding, failure due to natural factors, and failure due to overtopping are all possible causes of earth dam failure. However, overtopping failure is the most frequent cause of dam failure. According to The International Committee on Large Dams (ICOLD, 1995), and [3], more than one-third of the total known dam failures were caused by dam overtopping.

Overtopping occurs as the result of insufficient flood design or freeboard in some cases. Extreme rainstorms can cause floods which can overtop the dam and cause it to fail. The size and geometry of the reservoir or the dam (side slopes, top width, height, etc.), the homogeneity of the material used in the construction of the dam, overtopping depth, and the presence or absence of tailwater are all elements that influence this type of failure which will be illustrated in the following literature. Overtopping failures of earth dams may be divided into several failure mechanisms based on the material composition and the inner structure of the dam. For cohesive earth dams because of low permeability, no seepage exists on the slopes. Erosion often begins at the earth dam toe during turbulent erosion and moves upstream, undercutting the slope, causing the removal of large chunks of materials. While for non-cohesive earth dams the downstream face of the dam flattens progressively and is often said to rotate around a point near the downstream toe [4], [5], [6] In the last few decades, the study of failures due to overtopping has gained popularity among researchers. The overtopping failure, in fact, has been widely investigated in coastal and river hydraulics and morpho dynamic. In addition, several laboratory experimental studies have been conducted in this field in order to better understand different involved factors. Also, many numerical types of research have been conducted to investigate the process of overtopping failure as well as the elements that influence this type of failure.

Tabrizi et al. [5] conducted a series of embankment overtopping tests to find the effect of compaction on the failure of a homogenous sand embankment. A plane breach process occurred across the flume width due to the narrow flume width. They measured the downstream hydrographs and embankment surface profile for every case. They concluded that the peak discharge decreased with a high compaction level, while the time to peak increased. Kansoh et al. [6] studied experimentally the failure of compacted homogeneous non-cohesive earthen embankment due to overtopping. They investigated the influence of different shape parameters including the downstream slope, the crest width, and the height of the embankment on the erosion process. The erosion process was initiated by carving a pilot channel into the embankment crest. They evaluated the time of embankment failure for different shape parameters. They concluded that the failure time increases with increasing the downstream slope and the crest width. Zhu et al. [7] investigated experimentally the breaching of five embankments, one constructed with pure sand, and four with different sand-silt–clay mixtures. The erosion pattern was similar across the flume width. They stated that for cohesive soil mixtures the head cut erosion was the most important factor that affected the breach growth, while for non-cohesive soil the breach erosion was affected by shear erosion.

Amaral et al. [8] studied experimentally the failure by overtopping for two embankments built from silt sand material. They studied the effect of the degree of compaction of the embankment and the geometry of the pilot channel carved at the centre of the dam crest. They studied two shapes of pilot channel a rectangular shape and triangular shape. They stated that the breach development is influenced by a higher degree of compaction, however, the pilot channel geometry did not influence the breach’s final form. Bereta et al. [9] studied experimentally the breach formation of five dam models, three of them were homogenous clay soil while two were sandy-clay mixtures. The erosion process was initiated by cutting a pilot channel at the centre of the dam crest. They observed the initiation of erosion, flow shear erosion, sidewall bottom erosion, and distinguished the soil mechanical slope mass failure from the head cut vertically and laterally during these tests. Verma et al. [10] investigated experimentally a two-dimensional erosion phenomenon due to overtopping by using a wooden fuse plug model and five different soils. They concluded that the erosion process was affected mostly by cohesiveness and degree of compaction. For cohesive soils, a head cut erosion was observed, while for non-cohesive soils surface erosion occurred gradually. Also, the dimensions of fuse plug, type of fill material, reservoir capacity, and inflow were found to affect the behaviour of the overall breaching process.

Wu and Qin [11] studied the effect of adding coarse grains to the downstream face of a non-cohesive dam as a result of tailings deposition. The process of overtopping during tailings dam failures is analyzed and its effect on delaying the dam-break process and disaster mitigation are investigated. They found that the tested protective measures decreased the breach area, the maximum breaching flow discharge and flow velocity, and the downstream inundated area. Khankandi et al. [12] studied experimentally the effect of reservoir geometry on dam break flow in case of dry and wet bed conditions. They considered four different reservoir shapes, a long reservoir, a wide, a trapezoidal shaped and one with a 90◦ bend all with identical water volume and horizontal bed. The dam break is simulated by the sudden gate removal using a pneumatic jack. They measured the variation of water level over time with ultrasonic sensors and flow velocity component with an acoustic Doppler velocimeter. Also, the experimental results of water level variation are compared with Ritters solution (1892) [13]. They stated that for dry bed condition the long and 90 bend reservoirs results are close to the analytical solution by ritter also in these two shapes a 1D flow is noticed. However, for wide and trapezoidal reservoirs a 2D effect is significant due to flow contraction at channel entrance.

Rifai et al. [14] conducted a series of experiments to investigate the effect of tailwater depth on the outflow discharge and breach geometry during non-cohesive homogenous fluvial dikes overtopping failure. They cut an initial notch in the crest at 0.8 m from the upstream end of the dike to initiate overtopping. They compared their results to previous experiments under different main channel inflow discharges combined with a free floodplain. They divided the dike breaching process into three stages: gradual start of overtopping flow resulting in slow initiation of dike erosion, deepening and widening breach due to large flow depth and velocity, finally the flow depth starts stabilizing at its minimal level with or without sustained breach expansion. They stated that breach discharge has lower values than in free floodplain tests. Jiang [15] studied the effect of bed slope on breach parameters and peak discharge in non-cohesive embankment failure. An initial triangular breach with a depth and width of 4 cm was pre-set on one side of the dam. He stated that peak discharge increases with the increase of bed slope and then decreases.

Ozmen-cagatay et al. [16] studied experimentally flood wave propagation resulted from a sudden dam break event. For dam-break modelling, they used a mechanism that permitted the rapid removal of a vertical plate with a thickness of 4 mm and made of rigid plastic. They conducted three tests, one with dry bed condition and two tests with tailwater depths equal 0.025 m and 0.1 m respectively. They recorded the free surface profile during initial stages of dam break by using digital image processing. Finally, they compared the experimental results with the with a commercially available VOF-based CFD program solving the Reynolds-averaged Navier –Stokes equations (RANS) with the k– Ɛ turbulence model and the shallow water equations (SWEs). They concluded that Wave breaking was delayed with increasing the tailwater depth to initial reservoir depth ratio. They also stated that the SWE approach is sufficient more to represent dam break flows for wet bed condition. Evangelista [17] investigated experimentally and numerically using a depth-integrated two-phase model, the erosion of sand dike caused by the impact of a dam break wave. The dam break is simulated by a sudden opening of an upstream reservoir gate resulting in the overtopping of a downstream trapezoidal sand dike. The evolution of the water wave caused from the gate opening and dike erosion process are recorded by using a computer-controlled camera. The experimental results demonstrated that the progression of the wave front and dike erosion have a considerable influence on each other during the process. In addition, the dike constructed from fine sands was more resistant to erosion than the one built with coarse sand. They also stated that the numerical model can is capable of accurately predicting wave front position and dike erosion. Also, Di Cristo et al. [18] studied the effect of dam break wave propagation on a sand embankment both experimentally and numerically using a two-phase shallow-water model. The evolution of free surface and of the embankment bottom are recorded and used in numerical model assessment. They stated that the model allows reasonable simulation of the experimental trends of the free surface elevation regardeless of the geofailure operator.

Lots of numerical models have been developed over the past few years to simulate the dam break flooding problem. A one-dimensional model, such as Hec-Ras, DAMBRK and MIKE 11, ect. A two-dimensional model such as iRIC Nay2DH is used in earth embankment breach simulation. Other researchers studied the failure process numerically using (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models, such as FLOW-3D, and FLUENT. Goharnejad et al. [19] determined the outflow hydrograph which results from the embankment dam break due to overtopping. Hu et al. [20] performed a comparison between Flow-3D and MIKE3 FM numerical models in simulating a dam break event under dry and wet bed conditions with different tailwater depths. Kaurav et al. [21] simulated a planar dam breach process due to overtopping. They conducted a sensitivity analysis to find the effect of dam material, dam height, downstream slope, crest width, and inlet discharge on the erosion process and peak discharge through breach. They concluded that downstream slope has a significant influence on breaching process. Yusof et al. [22] studied the effect of embankment sediment sizes and inflow rates on breaching geometric and hydrodynamic parameters. They stated that the peak outflow hydrograph increases with increasing sediment size and inflow rates while time of failure decreases.

In the present work, the effect of tailwater depth on earth dam failure during overtopping is studied experimentally. The relation between the eroded volume of the dam and the tailwater depth is presented. Also, the percentage of reduction in peak discharge due to tailwater existence is calculated. An assessment of Flow 3D software performance in simulating the erosion process during earth dam failure is introduced. The statistical variable root- mean- square error, RMSE, and the agreement degree index, d, are used in model assessment.

2. Material and methods

The tests are conducted in a straight rectangular flume in the laboratory of Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulics Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Egypt. The flume dimensions are 10 m long, 0.86 m wide, and 0.5 m deep. The front part of the flume is connected to a storage basin 1 m long by 0.86 m wide. The storage basin is connected to a collecting tank for water recirculation during the experiments as shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2. A sharp-crested weir is placed at a distance of 4 m downstream the constructed dam to keep a constant tailwater depth in each experiment and to measure the outflow discharge.

To measure the eroded volume with time a rods technique is used. This technique consists of two parallel wooden plates with 10 cm distance in between and five rows of stainless-steel rods passing vertically through the wooden plates at a spacing of 20 cm distributed across flume width. Each row consists of four rods with 15 cm spacing between them. Also, a graph board is provided to measure the drop in each rod with time as shown in Fig. 3, Fig. 4. After dam construction the rods are carefully rested on the dam, with the first line of rods resting in the middle of the dam crest and then a constant distance of 15 cm between rods lines is maintained.

A soil sample is taken and tested in the laboratory of the soil mechanics to find the soil geotechnical parameters. The soil particle size distribution is also determined by sieve analysis as shown in Fig. 5. The soil mean diameter d₅₀,equals 0.38 mm and internal friction angle equals 32.6°.

2.1. Experimental procedures

To investigate the effect of the tailwater depth (d_o), the tailwater depth is changed four times 5, 15, 20, and 25 cm on the sand dam model. The dam profile is 35 cm height, with crest width = 15 cm, the dam base width is 155 cm, and the upstream and downstream slopes are 2:1 as shown in Fig. 6. The dam dimensions are set as the flume permitted to allow observation of the dam erosion process under the available flume dimensions and conditions. All of the conducted experiments have the same dimensions and configurations.

The optimum water content, W_c, from the standard proctor test is found to be 8 % and the maximum dry unit weight is 19.42 kN/m³. The soil and water are mixed thoroughly to ensure consistency and then placed on three horizontal layers. Each layer is compacted according to ASTM standard with 25 blows by using a rammer (27 cm × 20.5 cm) weighing 4 kg. Special attention is paid to the compaction of the soil to guarantee the repeatability of the tests.

After placing and compacting the three layers, the dam slopes are trimmed carefully to form the trapezoidal shape of the dam. A small triangular pilot channel with 1 cm height and 1:1 side slopes is cut into the dam crest to initiate the erosion process. The position of triangular pilot channel is presented in Fig. 1. Three digital video cameras with a resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels and a frame rate of 60 fps are placed in three different locations. One camera on one side of the flume to record the progress of the dam profile during erosion. Another to track the water level over the sharp-crested rectangular weir placed at the downstream end of the flume. And the third camera is placed above the flume at the downstream side of the dam and in front of the rods to record the drop of the tip of the rods with time as shown previously in Fig. 1.

Before starting the experiment, the water is pumped into the storage basin by using pump with capacity 360 m³/hr, and then into the upstream section of the flume. The upstream boundary is an inflow condition. The flow discharge provided to the storage basin is kept at a constant rate of 6 L/sec for all experiments, while the downstream boundary is an outflow boundary condition.

Also, the required tailwater depth for each experiment is filled to the desired depth. A dye container valve is opened to color the water upstream of the dam to make it easy to distinguish the dam profile from the water profile. A wooden board is placed just upstream of the dam to prevent water from overtopping the dam until the water level rises to a certain level above the dam crest and then the wooden board is removed slowly to start the experiment.

2.2. Repeatability

To verify the accuracy of the results, each experiment is repeated two times under the same conditions. Fig. 7 shows the relative eroded crest height, Z_eroded / Z_o, with time for 5 cm tailwater depth. From the Figure, it can be noticed that results for all runs are consistent, and accuracy is achieved.

3. Numerical model

The commercially available numerical model, Flow 3D is used to simulate the dam failure due to overtopping for the cases of 15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm tailwater depths. For numerical model calibration, experimental results for dam surface evolution are used. The numerical model is calibrated for selection of the optimal turbulence model (RNG, K-e, and k-w) and sediment scour equations (Van Rin, Meyer- peter and Muller, and Nielsen) that produce the best results. In this, the flow field is solved by the RNG turbulence model, and the van Rijn equation is used for the sediment scour model. A geometry file is imported before applying the mesh.

A Mesh sensitivity is analyzed and checked for various cell sizes, and it is found that decreasing the cell size significantly increases the simulation time with insignificant differences in the result. It is noticed that the most important factor influencing cell size selection is the value of the dam’s upstream and downstream slopes. For example, the slopes in the dam model are 2:1, thus the cell size ratio in X and Z directions should be 2:1 as well. The cell size in a mesh block is set to be 0.02 m, 0.025 m, and 0.01 m in X, Y and Z directions respectively.

In the numerical computations, the boundary conditions employed are the walls for sidewalls and the channel bottom. The pressure boundary condition is applied at the top, at the air–water interface, to account for atmospheric pressure on the free surface. The upstream boundary is volume flow rate while the downstream boundary is outflow discharge.

The initial condition is a fluid region, which is used to define fluid areas both upstream and downstream of the dam. To assess the model accuracy, the statistical variable root- mean- square error, RMSE, and the agreement degree index, d, are calculated as(1)RMSE=1N∑i=1N(Pi-Mi)2(2)d=1-∑Mi-Pi2∑Mi-M¯+Pi-P¯2

where N is the number of samples, P_i and M_i are the models and experimental values, P and M are the means of the model and experimental values. The best fit between the experimental and model results would have an RMSE = 0 and degree of agreement, d = 1.

4. Results of experimental work

The results of the total time of failure, t (defined as the time from when the water begins to overtop the dam crest until the erosion reaches a steady state, when no erosion occurs), time of crest width erosion t₁, cumulative eroded volume V_eroded, and peak discharge Q_peak for each experiment are listed in Table 1. The case of 5 cm tailwater depth is considered as a reference case in this work.

Table 1. Results of experimental work.

*Tailwater depth, d_o* (cm)**	*Total time of failure, t (sec)*	*Time of crest width erosion, t₁ (sec)*	*cumulative eroded volume, V_eroded* (m³)**	*Peak discharge, Q_peak* (liter/sec)**
5	255	22	0.21	13.12
15	165	30	0.16	12.19
20	140	34	0.13	11.29
25	110	39	0.05	10.84

5. Discussion

5.1. Side erosion

The evolution of the bathymetry of the erosion line recorded by the video camera1. The videos are split into frames (60 frames/sec) by the Free Video to JPG Converter v.5.063 build and then converted into an excel spreadsheet using MATLAB code as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 9 shows a sample of numerical model output. Fig. 10, Fig. 11, Fig. 12 show a dam profile development for different time steps from both experimental and numerical model, for tailwater depths equal 15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm. Also, the values of RMSE and d for each figure are presented. The comparison shows that the Flow 3D software can simulate the erosion process of non-cohesive earth dam during overtopping with an RMSE value equals 0.023, 0.0218, and 0.0167 and degree of agreement, d, equals 0.95, 0.968, and 0.988 for relative tailwater depths, d_o/(d_o)_ref, = 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The low values of RMSE and high values of d show that the Flow 3D can effectively simulate the erosion process. From Fig. 10, Fig. 11, Fig. 12, it can be noticed that the model is not capable of reproducing the head cut, while it can simulate well the degradation of the crest height with a minor difference from experimental work. The reason of this could be due to inability of simulation of all physical conditions which exists in the experimental work, such as channel friction and the grain size distribution of the dam soil which is surely has a great effect on the erosion process and breach development. In the experimental work the grain size distribution is shown in Fig. 5, while the numerical model considers that the soil is uniform and exactly 50 % of the dam particles diameter are equal to the d₅₀ value. Another reason is that the model is not considering the increased resistance of the dam due to the apparent cohesion which happens due to dam saturation [23].

It is clear from both the experimental and numerical results that for a 5 cm tailwater depth, d_o/(d_o)_ref = 1.0, erosion begins near the dam toe and continues upward on the downstream slope until it reaches the crest. After eroding the crest width, the crest is lowered, resulting in increased flow rates and the speeding up of the erosion process. While for relative tailwater depths, d_o/(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5 erosion starts at the point of intersection between the downstream slope and tailwater. The existence of tailwater works as an energy dissipater for the falling water which reduces the erosion process and prevents the dam from failure as shown in Fig. 13. It is found that the time of the failure decreases with increasing the tailwater depth because most of the dam height is being submerged with water which decreases the erosion process. The reduction in time of failure from the referenced case is found to be 35.3, 45, and 57 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref equals 3, 4, and 5, respectively.

The relation between the relative eroded crest height, Z_eroded /Z_o, with time is drawn as shown in Fig. 14. It is found that the relative eroded crest height decreases with increasing tailwater depth by 10, 41, and 77.6 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref equals 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The time required for the erosion of the crest width, t₁, is calculated for each experiment. The relation between relative tailwater depth and relative time of crest width erosion is shown in Fig. 15. It is found that the time of crest width erosion increases linearly with increasing, d_o /Z_o. The percent of increase is 36.4, 54.5 and 77.3 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4 and 5, respectively.

Crest height, Z_crest is calculated from the experimental results and the Flow 3D results for relative tailwater depths, d_o/(d_o)_ref, = 3, 4, and 5. A relation between relative crest height, Z_crest/Z_o with time from experimental and numerical results is presented in Fig. 16. From Fig. 16, it is seen that there is a good consistency between the results of numerical model and the experimental results in the case of tracking the erosion of the crest height with time.

5.2. Upstream and downstream water depths

It is noticed that at the beginning of the erosion process, both upstream and downstream water depths increase linearly with time as long as erosion of the crest height did not take place. However, when the crest height starts to lower the upstream water depth decreases with time while the downstream water depth increases. At the end of the experiment, the two depths are nearly equal. A relation between relative downstream and upstream water depths with time is drawn for each experiment as shown in Fig. 17.

5.3. Eroded volume

A MATLAB code is used to calculate the cumulative eroded volume every time interval for each experiment. The total volume of the dam, V_total is 0.256 m³. The cumulative eroded volume, V_eroded is 0.21, 0.16, 0.13, and 0.05 m³ for tailwater depths, d_o = 5, 15, 20, and 25 cm, respectively. Fig. 18 presents the relation between cumulative eroded volume, V_eroded and time. From Fig. 18, it is observed that the cumulative eroded volume decreases with increasing the tailwater depth. The reduction in cumulative eroded volume is 23, 36.5, and 75 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The relative remained volume of the dam equals 0.18, 0.375, 0.492, and 0.8 for tailwater depths = 5, 15, 20, and 25 cm, respectively. Fig. 19 shows a relation between relative tailwater depth and relative cumulative eroded volume from experimental results. From that figure, it is noticed that the eroded volume decreases exponentially with increasing relative tailwater depth.

5.4. The outflow discharge

The inflow discharge provided to the storage tank is maintained constant for all experiments. The water surface elevation, H, over the sharp-crested weir placed at the downstream side is recorded by the video camera 2. For each experiment, the outflow discharge is then calculated by using the sharp-crested rectangular weir equation every 10 sec.

The outflow discharge is found to increase rapidly until it reaches its peak then it decreases until it is constant. For high values of tailwater depths, the peak discharge becomes less than that in the case of small tailwater depth as shown in Fig. 20 which agrees well with the results of Rifai et al. [14] The reduction in peak discharge is 7, 14, and 17.35 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5, respectively.

The scenario presented in this article in which the tailwater depth rises due to unexpected heavy rainfall, is investigated to find the effect of rising tailwater depth on earth dam failure. The results revealed that rising tailwater depth positively affects the process of dam failure in terms of preventing the dam from complete failure and reducing the outflow discharge.

6. Conclusions

The effect of tailwater depth on earth dam failure due to overtopping is investigated experimentally in this work. The study focuses on the effect of tailwater depth on side erosion, upstream and downstream water depths, eroded volume, outflow hydrograph, and duration of the failure process. The Flow 3D numerical software is used to simulate the dam failure, and a comparison is made between the experimental and numerical results to find the ability of this software to simulate the erosion process. The following are the results of the investigation:

The existence of tailwater with high depths prevents the dam from completely collapsing thereby turning it into a broad crested weir. The failure time decreases with increasing the tailwater depth and the reduction from the reference case is found to be 35.3, 45, and 57 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The difference between the upstream and downstream water depths decreases with time till it became almost negligible at the end of the experiment. The reduction in cumulative eroded volume is 23, 36.5, and 75 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The peak discharge decreases by 7, 14, and 17.35 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The relative eroded crest height decreases linearly with increasing the tailwater depth by 10, 41, and 77.6 % for relative tailwater depth, d_o /(d_o)_ref = 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The numerical model can reproduce the erosion process with a minor deviation from the experimental results, particularly in terms of tracking the degradation of the crest height with time.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Cited by (0)

My name is Shaimaa Ibrahim Mohamed Aman and I am a teaching assistant in Irrigation and Hydraulics department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. I graduated from the Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University in 2013. I had my MSc in Irrigation and Hydraulic Engineering in 2017. My research interests lie in the area of earth dam Failures.

Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.

Minglei Quo ^bQilin Guo ^a bLuis ^IzetEscano ^a bAli Nabaa ^a bKamel Fezzaa ^cLianyi Chen ^a b

Nanoparticle-enabled increase of energy efficiency during laser metal additive manufacturing

레이저 금속 적층 제조 중 나노 입자로 에너지 효율 증가

레이저 금속 적층 제조(AM) 공정의 낮은 에너지 효율은 대규모 산업 생산에서 잠재적인 지속 가능성 문제입니다. 레이저 용융을 위한 에너지 효율의 명시적 조사는 용융 금속의 불투명한 특성으로 인해 매우 어려운 용융 풀 치수 및 증기 내림의 직접적인 특성화를 요구합니다.

여기에서 우리는 현장 고속 고에너지 x-선 이미징에 의해 Al6061의 레이저 분말 베드 융합(LPBF) 동안 증기 강하 및 용융 풀 형성에 대한 TiC 나노 입자의 효과에 대한 직접적인 관찰 및 정량화를 보고합니다. 정량 결과를 바탕으로, 우리는 Al6061의 LPBF 동안 TiC 나노 입자가 있거나 없을 때 레이저 용융 에너지 효율(여기서 재료를 용융하는 데 필요한 에너지 대 레이저 빔에 의해 전달되는 에너지의 비율로 정의)을 계산했습니다.

결과는 TiC 나노 입자를 Al6061에 추가하면 레이저 용융 에너지 효율이 크게 증가한다는 것을 보여줍니다(평균 114% 증가, 312에서 521% 증가). W 레이저 출력, 0.4m /s 스캔 속도). 체계적인 특성 측정, 시뮬레이션 및 x-선 이미징 연구를 통해 우리는 처음으로 세 가지 메커니즘이 함께 작동하여 레이저 용융 에너지 효율을 향상시킨다는 것을 확인할 수 있었습니다.

(1) TiC 나노 입자를 추가하면 흡수율이 증가합니다. (2) TiC 나노입자를 추가하면 열전도율이 감소하고, (3) TiC 나노입자를 추가하면 더 낮은 레이저 출력에서 증기 억제 및 다중 반사를 시작할 수 있습니다(즉, 키홀링에 대한 레이저 출력 임계값을 낮춤).

여기서 보고한 Al6061의 LPBF 동안 레이저 용융 에너지 효율을 증가시키기 위해 TiC 나노입자를 사용하는 방법 및 메커니즘은 보다 에너지 효율적인 레이저 금속 AM을 위한 공급원료 재료의 개발을 안내할 수 있습니다.

The low energy efficiency of the laser metal additive manufacturing (AM) process is a potential sustainability concern for large-scale industrial production. Explicit investigation of the energy efficiency for laser melting requires the direct characterization of melt pool dimension and vapor depression, which is very difficult due to the opaque nature of the molten metal. Here we report the direct observation and quantification of effects of the TiC nanoparticles on the vapor depression and melt pool formation during laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) of Al6061 by in-situ high-speed high-energy x-ray imaging. Based on the quantification results, we calculated the laser melting energy efficiency (defined here as the ratio of the energy needed to melt the material to the energy delivered by the laser beam) with and without TiC nanoparticles during LPBF of Al6061. The results show that adding TiC nanoparticles into Al6061 leads to a significant increase of laser melting energy efficiency (114% increase on average, 521% increase under 312 W laser power, 0.4 m/s scan speed). Systematic property measurement, simulation, and x-ray imaging studies enable us, for the first time, to identify that three mechanisms work together to enhance the laser melting energy efficiency: (1) adding TiC nanoparticles increases the absorptivity; (2) adding TiC nanoparticles decreases the thermal conductivity, and (3) adding TiC nanoparticles enables the initiation of vapor depression and multiple reflection at lower laser power (i.e., lowers the laser power threshold for keyholing). The method and mechanisms of using TiC nanoparticles to increase the laser melting energy efficiency during LPBF of Al6061 we reported here may guide the development of feedstock materials for more energy efficient laser metal AM.

Keywords

Additive manufacturing

laser powder bed fusion

energy efficiency

keyhole

melt pool

x-ray imaging

metal matrix nanocomposites

The failure propagation of weakly stable sediment: A reason for the formation of high-velocity turbidity currents in submarine canyons

약한 안정 퇴적물의 실패 전파: 해저 협곡에서 고속 탁도 흐름이 형성되는 이유

Yupeng Ren, Yi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu, Houjie Wang & Zhiyuan Chen

Abstract

Abstract해저 협곡에서 탁도의 장거리 이동은 많은 양의 퇴적물을 심해 평원으로 운반할 수 있습니다. 이전 연구에서는 5.9~28.0m/s 범위의 다중 케이블 손상 이벤트에서 파생된 탁도 전류 속도와 0.15~7.2m/s 사이의 현장 관찰 결과에서 명백한 차이가 있음을 보여줍니다. 따라서 해저 환경의 탁한 유체가 해저 협곡을 고속으로 장거리로 흐를 수 있는지에 대한 질문이 남아 있습니다. 연구실 시험의 결합을 통해 해저협곡의 탁류의 고속 및 장거리 운동을 설명하기 위해 약안정 퇴적물 기반의 새로운 모델(약안정 퇴적물에 대한 파손 전파 모델 제안, 줄여서 WSS-PFP 모델)을 제안합니다. 및 수치 아날로그. 이 모델은 두 가지 메커니즘을 기반으로 합니다. 1) 원래 탁도류는 약하게 안정한 퇴적층의 불안정화를 촉발하고 연질 퇴적물의 불안정화 및 하류 방향으로의 이동을 촉진하고 2) 원래 탁도류가 협곡으로 이동할 때 형성되는 여기파가 불안정화로 이어진다. 하류 방향으로 약하게 안정한 퇴적물의 수송. 제안된 모델은 심해 퇴적, 오염 물질 이동 및 광 케이블 손상 연구를 위한 동적 프로세스 해석을 제공할 것입니다.

The long-distance movement of turbidity currents in submarine canyons can transport large amounts of sediment to deep-sea plains. Previous studies show obvious differences in the turbidity current velocities derived from the multiple cables damage events ranging from 5.9 to 28.0 m/s and those of field observations between 0.15 and 7.2 m/s. Therefore, questions remain regarding whether a turbid fluid in an undersea environment can flow through a submarine canyon for a long distance at a high speed. A new model based on weakly stable sediment is proposed (proposed failure propagation model for weakly stable sediments, WSS-PFP model for short) to explain the high-speed and long-range motion of turbidity currents in submarine canyons through the combination of laboratory tests and numerical analogs. The model is based on two mechanisms: 1) the original turbidity current triggers the destabilization of the weakly stable sediment bed and promotes the destabilization and transport of the soft sediment in the downstream direction and 2) the excitation wave that forms when the original turbidity current moves into the canyon leads to the destabilization and transport of the weakly stable sediment in the downstream direction. The proposed model will provide dynamic process interpretation for the study of deep-sea deposition, pollutant transport, and optical cable damage.

Keyword

turbidity current
excitation wave
dense basal layer
velocity
WSS-PFP model

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Acknowledgment

We thank Hanru WU from Ocean University of China for his help in thesis writing, and Hao TIAN and Chenxi WANG from Ocean University of China for their helps in the preparation of the experimental materials. Guohui XU is responsible for the development of the initial concept, processing of test data, and management of coauthor contributions to the paper; Yupeng REN for the experiment setup and drafting of the paper; Yi ZHANG and Xingbei XU for the simulation part of the experiment; Houjie WANG for writing guidance; Zhiyuan CHEN for the experiment setup.

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Authors and Affiliations

Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Geological Engineering, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYupeng Ren, Yi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu & Zhiyuan Chen
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Geological Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYupeng Ren & Houjie Wang
Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu & Zhiyuan Chen

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Guohui Xu.

Additional information

Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41976049, 41720104001) and the Taishan Scholar Project of Shandong Province (No. TS20190913), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 202061028)

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Ren, Y., Zhang, Y., Xu, G. et al. The failure propagation of weakly stable sediment: A reason for the formation of high-velocity turbidity currents in submarine canyons. J. Ocean. Limnol. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00343-022-1285-0

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Fig. 1. (a) Dimensions of the casting with runners (unit: mm), (b) a melt flow simulation using Flow-3D software together with Reilly's model[44], predicted that a large amount of bifilms (denoted by the black particles) would be contained in the final casting. (c) A solidification simulation using Pro-cast software showed that no shrinkage defect was contained in the final casting.

AZ91 합금 주물 내 연행 결함에 대한 캐리어 가스의 영향

TianLi^abJ.M.T.Davies^aXiangzhenZhu^c
^aUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
^bGrainger and Worrall Ltd, Bridgnorth WV15 5HP, United Kingdom
^cBrunel Centre for Advanced Solidification Technology, Brunel University London, Kingston Ln, London, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, United Kingdom

Abstract

An entrainment defect (also known as a double oxide film defect or bifilm) acts a void containing an entrapped gas when submerged into a light-alloy melt, thus reducing the quality and reproducibility of the final castings. Previous publications, carried out with Al-alloy castings, reported that this trapped gas could be subsequently consumed by the reaction with the surrounding melt, thus reducing the void volume and negative effect of entrainment defects. Compared with Al-alloys, the entrapped gas within Mg-alloy might be more efficiently consumed due to the relatively high reactivity of magnesium. However, research into the entrainment defects within Mg alloys has been significantly limited. In the present work, AZ91 alloy castings were produced under different carrier gas atmospheres (i.e., SF₆/CO₂, SF₆/air). The evolution processes of the entrainment defects contained in AZ91 alloy were suggested according to the microstructure inspections and thermodynamic calculations. The defects formed in the different atmospheres have a similar sandwich-like structure, but their oxide films contained different combinations of compounds. The use of carrier gases, which were associated with different entrained-gas consumption rates, affected the reproducibility of AZ91 castings.

연행 결함(이중 산화막 결함 또는 이중막이라고도 함)은 경합금 용융물에 잠길 때 갇힌 가스를 포함하는 공극으로 작용하여 최종 주물의 품질과 재현성을 저하시킵니다. Al-합금 주물을 사용하여 수행된 이전 간행물에서는 이 갇힌 가스가 주변 용융물과의 반응에 의해 후속적으로 소모되어 공극 부피와 연행 결함의 부정적인 영향을 줄일 수 있다고 보고했습니다. Al-합금에 비해 마그네슘의 상대적으로 높은 반응성으로 인해 Mg-합금 내에 포집된 가스가 더 효율적으로 소모될 수 있습니다. 그러나 Mg 합금 내 연행 결함에 대한 연구는 상당히 제한적이었습니다. 현재 작업에서 AZ91 합금 주물은 다양한 캐리어 가스 분위기(즉, SF6/CO2, SF6/공기)에서 생산되었습니다. AZ91 합금에 포함된 연행 결함의 진화 과정은 미세 조직 검사 및 열역학 계산에 따라 제안되었습니다. 서로 다른 분위기에서 형성된 결함은 유사한 샌드위치 구조를 갖지만 산화막에는 서로 다른 화합물 조합이 포함되어 있습니다. 다른 동반 가스 소비율과 관련된 운반 가스의 사용은 AZ91 주물의 재현성에 영향을 미쳤습니다.

Keywords

Magnesium alloy, Casting, Oxide film, Bifilm, Entrainment defect, Reproducibility

1. Introduction

As the lightest structural metal available on Earth, magnesium became one of the most attractive light metals over the last few decades. The magnesium industry has consequently experienced a rapid development in the last 20 years [1,2], indicating a large growth in demand for Mg alloys all over the world. Nowadays, the use of Mg alloys can be found in the fields of automobiles, aerospace, electronics and etc.[3,4]. It has been predicted that the global consumption of Mg metals will further increase in the future, especially in the automotive industry, as the energy efficiency requirement of both traditional and electric vehicles further push manufactures lightweight their design [3,5,6].

The sustained growth in demand for Mg alloys motivated a wide interest in the improvement of the quality and mechanical properties of Mg-alloy castings. During a Mg-alloy casting process, surface turbulence of the melt can lead to the entrapment of a doubled-over surface film containing a small quantity of the surrounding atmosphere, thus forming an entrainment defect (also known as a double oxide film defect or bifilm) [7], [8], [9], [10]. The random size, quantity, orientation, and placement of entrainment defects are widely accepted to be significant factors linked to the variation of casting properties [7]. In addition, Peng et al. [11] found that entrained oxides films in AZ91 alloy melt acted as filters to Al₈Mn₅ particles, trapping them as they settle. Mackie et al. [12] further suggested that entrained oxide films can act to trawl the intermetallic particles, causing them to cluster and form extremely large defects. The clustering of intermetallic compounds made the entrainment defects more detrimental for the casting properties.

Most of the previous studies regarding entrainment defects were carried out on Al-alloys [7,[13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], and a few potential methods have been suggested for diminishing their negative effect on the quality of Al-alloy castings. Nyahumwa et al.,[16] shows that the void volume within entrainment defects could be reduced by a hot isostatic pressing (HIP) process. Campbell [7] suggested the entrained gas within the defects could be consumed due to reaction with the surrounding melt, which was further verified by Raiszedeh and Griffiths [19].The effect of the entrained gas consumption on the mechanical properties of Al-alloy castings has been investigated by [8,9], suggesting that the consumption of the entrained gas promoted the improvement of the casting reproducibility.

Compared with the investigation concerning the defects within Al-alloys, research into the entrainment defects within Mg-alloys has been significantly limited. The existence of entrainment defects has been demonstrated in Mg-alloy castings [20,21], but their behaviour, evolution, as well as entrained gas consumption are still not clear.

In a Mg-alloy casting process, the melt is usually protected by a cover gas to avoid magnesium ignition. The cavities of sand or investment moulds are accordingly required to be flushed with the cover gas prior to the melt pouring [22]. Therefore, the entrained gas within Mg-alloy castings should contain the cover gas used in the casting process, rather than air only, which may complicate the structure and evolution of the corresponding entrainment defects.

SF₆ is a typical cover gas widely used for Mg-alloy casting processes [23], [24], [25]. Although this cover gas has been restricted to use in European Mg-alloy foundries, a commercial report has pointed out that this cover is still popular in global Mg-alloy industry, especially in the countries which dominated the global Mg-alloy production, such as China, Brazil, India, etc. [26]. In addition, a survey in academic publications also showed that this cover gas was widely used in recent Mg-alloy studies [27]. The protective mechanism of SF₆ cover gas (i.e., the reaction between liquid Mg-alloy and SF₆ cover gas) has been investigated by several previous researchers, but the formation process of the surface oxide film is still not clearly understood, and even some published results are conflicting with each other. In early 1970s, Fruehling [28] found that the surface film formed under SF₆ was MgO mainly with traces of fluorides, and suggested that SF₆ was absorbed in the Mg-alloy surface film. Couling [29] further noticed that the absorbed SF₆ reacted with the Mg-alloy melt to form MgF₂. In last 20 years, different structures of the Mg-alloy surface films have been reported, as detailed below.(1)

Single-layered film. Cashion [30,31] used X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger Spectroscopy (AES) to identify the surface film as MgO and MgF₂. He also found that composition of the film was constant throughout the thickness and the whole experimental holding time. The film observed by Cashion had a single-layered structure created from a holding time from 10 min to 100 min.(2)

Double-layered film. Aarstad et. al [32] reported a doubled-layered surface oxide film in 2003. They observed several well-distributed MgF₂ particles attached to the preliminary MgO film and grew until they covered 25–50% of the total surface area. The inward diffusion of F through the outer MgO film was the driving force for the evolution process. This double-layered structure was also supported by Xiong’s group [25,33] and Shih et al. [34].(3)

Triple-layered film. The triple-layered film and its evolution process were reported in 2002 by Pettersen [35]. Pettersen found that the initial surface film was a MgO phase and then gradually evolved to the stable MgF₂ phase by the inward diffusion of F. In the final stage, the film has a triple-layered structure with a thin O-rich interlayer between the thick top and bottom MgF₂ layers.(4)

Oxide film consisted of discrete particles. Wang et al [36] stirred the Mg-alloy surface film into the melt under a SF₆ cover gas, and then inspect the entrained surface film after the solidification. They found that the entrained surface films were not continues as the protective surface films reported by other researchers but composed of discrete particles. The young oxide film was composed of MgO nano-sized oxide particles, while the old oxide films consist of coarse particles (about 1 µm in average size) on one side that contained fluorides and nitrides.

The oxide films of a Mg-alloy melt surface or an entrained gas are both formed due to the reaction between liquid Mg-alloy and the cover gas, thus the above-mentioned research regarding the Mg-alloy surface film gives valuable insights into the evolution of entrainment defects. The protective mechanism of SF₆ cover gas (i.e., formation of a Mg-alloy surface film) therefore indicated a potential complicated evolution process of the corresponding entrainment defects.

However, it should be noted that the formation of a surface film on a Mg-alloy melt is in a different situation to the consumption of an entrained gas that is submerged into the melt. For example, a sufficient amount of cover gas was supported during the surface film formation in the studies previously mentioned, which suppressed the depletion of the cover gas. In contrast, the amount of entrained gas within a Mg-alloy melt is finite, and the entrained gas may become fully depleted. Mirak [37] introduced 3.5%SF₆/air bubbles into a pure Mg-alloy melt solidifying in a specially designed permanent mould. It was found that the gas bubbles were entirely consumed, and the corresponding oxide film was a mixture of MgO and MgF₂. However, the nucleation sites (such as the MgF₂ spots observed by Aarstad [32] and Xiong [25,33]) were not observed. Mirak also speculated that the MgF₂ formed prior to MgO in the oxide film based on the composition analysis, which was opposite to the surface film formation process reported in previous literatures (i.e., MgO formed prior to MgF₂). Mirak’s work indicated that the oxide-film formation of an entrained gas may be quite different from that of surface films, but he did not reveal the structure and evolution of the oxide films.

In addition, the use of carrier gas in the cover gases also influenced the reaction between the cover gas and the liquid Mg-alloy. SF₆/air required a higher content of SF₆ than did a SF₆/CO₂ carrier gas [38], to avoid the ignition of molten magnesium, revealing different gas-consumption rates. Liang et.al [39] suggested that carbon was formed in the surface film when CO₂ was used as a carrier gas, which was different from the films formed in SF₆/air. An investigation into Mg combustion [40] reported a detection of Mg₂C₃ in the Mg-alloy sample after burning in CO₂, which not only supported Liang’s results, but also indicated a potential formation of Mg carbides in double oxide film defects.

The work reported here is an investigation into the behaviour and evolution of entrainment defects formed in AZ91 Mg-alloy castings, protected by different cover gases (i.e., SF₆/air and SF₆/CO₂). These carrier gases have different protectability for liquid Mg alloy, which may be therefore associated with different consumption rates and evolution processes of the corresponding entrained gases. The effect of the entrained-gas consumption on the reproducibility of AZ91 castings was also studied.

2. Experiment

2.1. Melting and casting

Three kilograms AZ91 alloy was melted in a mild steel crucible at 700 ± 5 °C. The composition of the AZ91 alloy has been shown in Table 1. Prior to heating, all oxide scale on the ingot surface was removed by machining. The cover gases used were 0.5%SF₆/air or 0.5%SF₆/CO₂ (vol.%) at a flow rate of 6 L/min for different castings. The melt was degassed by argon with a flow rate of 0.3 L/min for 15 min [41,42], and then poured into sand moulds. Prior to pouring, the sand mould cavity was flushed with the cover gas for 20 min [22]. The residual melt (around 1 kg) was solidified in the crucible.

Table 1. Composition (wt.%) of the AZ91 alloy used in this study.

Al	Zn	Mn	Si	Fe	Ni	Mg
9.4	0.61	0.15	0.02	0.005	0.0017	Residual

Fig. 1(a) shows the dimensions of the casting with runners. A top-filling system was deliberately used to generate entrainment defects in the final castings. Green and Campbell [7,43] suggested that a top-filling system caused more entrainment events (i.e., bifilms) during a casting process, compared with a bottom-filling system. A melt flow simulation (Flow-3D software) of this mould, using Reilly’s model [44] regarding the entrainment events, also predicted that a large amount of bifilms would be contained in the final casting (denoted by the black particles in Fig. 1b).

Shrinkage defects also affect the mechanical properties and reproducibility of castings. Since this study focused on the effect of bifilms on the casting quality, the mould has been deliberately designed to avoid generating shrinkage defects. A solidification simulation using ProCAST software showed that no shrinkage defect would be contained in the final casting, as shown in Fig. 1c. The casting soundness has also been confirmed using a real time X-ray prior to the test bar machining.

The sand moulds were made from resin-bonded silica sand, containing 1wt. % PEPSET 5230 resin and 1wt. % PEPSET 5112 catalyst. The sand also contained 2 wt.% Na₂SiF₆ to act as an inhibitor [45]. The pouring temperature was 700 ± 5 °C. After the solidification, a section of the runner bars was sent to the Sci-Lab Analytical Ltd for a H-content analysis (LECO analysis), and all the H-content measurements were carried out on the 5th day after the casting process. Each of the castings was machined into 40 test bars for a tensile strength test, using a Zwick 1484 tensile test machine with a clip extensometer. The fracture surfaces of the broken test bars were examined using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM, Philips JEOL7000) with an accelerating voltage of 5–15 kV. The fractured test bars, residual Mg-alloy solidified in the crucible, and the casting runners were then sectioned, polished and also inspected using the same SEM. The cross-section of the oxide film found on the test-bar fracture surface was exposed by the Focused Ion Beam milling technique (FIB), using a CFEI Quanta 3D FEG FIB-SEM. The oxide film required to be analysed was coated with a platinum layer. Then, a gallium ion beam, accelerated to 30 kV, milled the material substrate surrounding the platinum coated area to expose the cross section of the oxide film. EDS analysis of the oxide film’s cross section was carried out using the FIB equipment at accelerating voltage of 30 kV.

2.2. Oxidation cell

As previously mentioned, several past researchers investigated the protective film formed on a Mg-alloy melt surface [38,39,[46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52]. During these experiments, the amount of cover gas used was sufficient, thus suppressing the depletion of fluorides in the cover gas. The experiment described in this section used a sealed oxidation cell, which limited the supply of cover gas, to study the evolution of the oxide films of entrainment defects. The cover gas contained in the oxidation cell was regarded as large-size “entrained bubble”.

As shown in Fig. 2, the main body of the oxidation cell was a closed-end mild steel tube which had an inner length of 400 mm, and an inner diameter of 32 mm. A water-cooled copper tube was wrapped around the upper section of the cell. When the tube was heated, the cooling system created a temperature difference between the upper and lower sections, causing the interior gas to convect within the tube. The temperature was monitored by a type-K thermocouple located at the top of the crucible. Nie et al. [53] suggested that the SF₆ cover gas would react with the steel wall of the holding furnace when they investigated the surface film of a Mg-alloy melt. To avoid this reaction, the interior surface of the steel oxidation cell (shown in Fig. 2) and the upper half section of the thermocouple were coated with boron nitride (the Mg-alloy was not in contact with boron nitride).

Fig. 2. Schematic of the oxidation cell used to study the evolution of the oxide films of the entrainment defects (unit mm).

During the experiment, a block of solid AZ91 alloy was placed in a magnesia crucible located at the bottom of the oxidation cell. The cell was heated to 100 °C in an electric resistance furnace under a gas flow rate of 1 L/min. The cell was held at this temperature for 20 min, to replace the original trapped atmosphere (i.e. air). Then, the oxidation cell was further heated to 700 °C, melting the AZ91 sample. The gas inlet and exit valves were then closed, creating a sealed environment for oxidation under a limited supply of cover gas. The oxidation cell was then held at 700 ± 10 °C for periods of time from 5 min to 30 min in 5-min intervals. At the end of each holding time, the cell was quenched in water. After cooling to room temperature, the oxidised sample was sectioned, polished, and subsequently examined by SEM.

3. Results

3.1. Structure and composition of the entrainment defects formed in SF₆/air

The structure and composition of the entrainment defect formed in the AZ91 castings under a cover gas of 0.5%SF₆/air was observed by SEM and EDS. The results indicate that there exist two types of entrainment defects which are sketched in Fig. 3: (1) Type A defect whose oxide film has a traditional single-layered structure and (2) Type B defect, whose oxide film has two layers. The details of these defects were introduced in the following. Here it should be noticed that, as the entrainment defects are also known as biofilms or double oxide film, the oxide films of Type B defect were referred to as “multi-layered oxide film” or “multi-layered structure” in the present work to avoid a confusing description such as “the double-layered oxide film of a double oxide film defect”.

Fig. 3. Schematic of the different types of entrainment defects found in AZ91 castings. (a) Type A defect with a single-layered oxide film and (b) Type B defect with two-layered oxide film.

Fig. 4(a-b) shows a Type A defect having a compact single-layered oxide film with about 0.4 µm thickness. Oxygen, fluorine, magnesium and aluminium were detected in this film (Fig. 4c). It is speculated that oxide film is the mixture of fluoride and oxide of magnesium and aluminium. The detection of fluorine revealed that an entrained cover gas was contained in the formation of this defect. That is to say that the pores shown in Fig. 4(a) were not shrinkage defects or hydrogen porosity, but entrainment defects. The detection of aluminium was different with Xiong and Wang’s previous study [47,48], which showed that no aluminium was contained in their surface film of an AZ91 melt protected by a SF₆ cover gas. Sulphur could not be clearly recognized in the element map, but there was a S-peak in the corresponding ESD spectrum.

Fig. 4. (a) A Type A entrainment defect formed in SF6/air and having a single-layered oxide film, (b) the oxide film of this defect, (c) SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the area highlighted in (b).

Fig. 5(a-b) shows a Type B entrainment defect having a multi-layered oxide film. The compact outer layers of the oxide films were enriched with fluorine and oxygen (Fig. 5c), while their relatively porous inner layers were only enriched with oxygen (i.e., poor in fluorine) and partly grew together, thus forming a sandwich-like structure. Therefore, it is speculated that the outer layer is the mixture of fluoride and oxide, while the inner layer is mainly oxide. Sulphur could only be recognized in the EDX spectrum and could not be clearly identified in the element map, which might be due to the small S-content in the cover gas (i.e., 0.5% volume content of SF₆ in the cover gas). In this oxide film, aluminium was contained in the outer layer of this oxide film but could not be clearly detected in the inner layer. Moreover, the distribution of Al seems to be uneven. It can be found that, in the right side of the defect, aluminium exists in the film but its concentration can not be identified to be higher than the matrix. However, there is a small area with much higher aluminium concentration in the left side of the defect. Such an uneven distribution of aluminium was also observed in other defects (shown in the following), and it is the result of the formation of some oxide particles in or under the film.

Fig. 5. (a) A Type B entrainment defect formed in SF6/air and having a multi-layered oxide film, (b) the oxide films of this defect have grown together, (c) SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the area shown in (b).

Figs. 4 and 5 show cross sectional observations of the entrainment defects formed in the AZ91 alloy sample cast under a cover gas of SF₆/air. It is not sufficient to characterize the entrainment defects only by the figures observed from the two-dimensional section. To have a further understanding, the surface of the entrainment defects (i.e. the oxide film) was further studied by observing the fracture surface of the test bars.

Fig. 6(a) shows fracture surfaces of an AZ91 alloy tensile test bar produced in SF₆/air. Symmetrical dark regions can be seen on both sides of the fracture surfaces. Fig. 6(b) shows boundaries between the dark and bright regions. The bright region consisted of jagged and broken features, while the surface of the dark region was relatively smooth and flat. In addition, the EDS results (Fig. 6c-d and Table 2) show that fluorine, oxygen, sulphur, and nitrogen were only detected in the dark regions, indicating that the dark regions were surface protective films entrained into the melt. Therefore, it could be suggested that the dark regions were an entrainment defect with consideration of their symmetrical nature. Similar defects on fracture surfaces of Al-alloy castings have been previously reported [7]. Nitrides were only found in the oxide films on the test-bar fracture surfaces but never detected in the cross-sectional samples shown in Figs. 4 and 5. An underlying reason is that the nitrides contained in these samples may have hydrolysed during the sample polishing process [54].

Fig. 6. (a) A pair of the fracture surfaces of a AZ91 alloy tensile test bar produced under a cover gas of SF6/air. The dimension of the fracture surface is 5 mm × 6 mm, (b) a section of the boundary between the dark and bright regions shown in (a), (c-d) EDS spectrum of the (c) bright regions and (d) dark regions, (e) schematic of an entrainment defect contained in a test bar.

Table 2. EDS results (wt.%) corresponding to the regions shown in Fig. 6 (cover gas: SF₆/air).

Empty Cell	C	O	Mg	F	Al	Zn	S	N
Dark region in Fig. 6(b)	3.48	1.32	79.13	0.47	13.63	0.57	0.08	0.73
Bright region in Fig. 6(b)	3.58	–	84.48	–	11.25	0.68	–	–

In conjunction with the cross-sectional observation of the defects shown in Figs. 4 and 5, the structure of an entrainment defect contained in a tensile test bar was sketched as shown in Fig. 6(e). The defect contained an entrained gas enclosed by its oxide film, creating a void section inside the test bar. When the tensile force applied on the defect during the fracture process, the crack was initiated at the void section and propagated along the entrainment defect, since cracks would be propagated along the weakest path [55]. Therefore, when the test bar was finally fractured, the oxide films of entrainment defect appeared on both fracture surfaces of the test bar, as shown in Fig. 6(a).

3.2. Structure and composition of the entrainment defects formed in SF₆/CO₂

Similar to the entrainment defect formed in SF₆/air, the defects formed under a cover gas of 0.5%SF₆/CO₂ also had two types of oxide films (i.e., single-layered and multi-layered types). Fig. 7(a) shows an example of the entrainment defects containing a multi-layered oxide film. A magnified observation to the defect (Fig. 7b) shows that the inner layers of the oxide films had grown together, presenting a sandwich-like structure, which was similar to the defects formed in an atmosphere of SF₆/air (Fig. 5b). An EDS spectrum (Fig. 7c) revealed that the joint area (inner layer) of this sandwich-like structure mainly contained magnesium oxides. Peaks of fluorine, sulphur, and aluminium were recognized in this EDS spectrum, but their amount was relatively small. In contrast, the outer layers of the oxide films were compact and composed of a mixture of fluorides and oxides (Fig. 7d-e).

Fig. 7. (a) An example of entrainment defects formed in SF6/CO2 and having a multi-layered oxide film, (b) magnified observation of the defect, showing the inner layer of the oxide films has grown together, (c) EDS spectrum of the point denoted in (b), (d) outer layer of the oxide film, (e) SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the area shown in (d).

Fig. 8(a) shows an entrainment defect on the fracture surfaces of an AZ91 alloy tensile test bar, which was produced in an atmosphere of 0.5%SF₆/CO₂. The corresponding EDS results (Table 3) showed that oxide film contained fluorides and oxides. Sulphur and nitrogen were not detected. Besides, a magnified observation (Fig. 8b) indicated spots on the oxide film surface. The diameter of the spots ranged from hundreds of nanometres to a few micron meters.

Fig. 8. (a) A pair of the fracture surfaces of a AZ91 alloy tensile test bar, produced in an atmosphere of SF6/CO2. The dimension of the fracture surface is 5 mm × 6 mm, (b) surface appearance of the oxide films on the fracture surfaces, showing spots on the film surface.

To further reveal the structure and composition of the oxide film clearly, the cross-section of the oxide film on a test-bar fracture surface was onsite exposed using the FIB technique (Fig. 9). As shown in Fig. 9a, a continuous oxide film was found between the platinum coating layer and the Mg-Al alloy substrate. Fig. 9 (b-c) shows a magnified observation to oxide films, indicating a multi-layered structure (denoted by the red box in Fig. 9c). The bottom layer was enriched with fluorine and oxygen and should be the mixture of fluoride and oxide, which was similar to the “outer layer” shown in Figs. 5 and 7, while the only-oxygen-enriched top layer was similar to the “inner layer” shown in Figs. 5 and 7.

Fig. 9. (a) A cross-sectional observation of the oxide film on the fracture surface of the AZ91 casting produced in SF6/CO2, exposed by FIB, (b) a magnified observation of area highlighted in (a), and (c) SEM-EDS elements map of the area shown in (b), obtained by CFEI Quanta 3D FEG FIB-SEM.

Except the continuous film, some individual particles were also observed in or below the continuous film, as shown in Fig. 9. An Al-enriched particle was detected in the left side of the oxide film shown in Fig. 9b and might be speculated to be spinel Mg₂AlO₄ because it also contains abundant magnesium and oxygen elements. The existing of such Mg₂AlO₄ particles is responsible for the high concentration of aluminium in small areas of the observed film and the uneven distribution of aluminium, as shown in Fig. 5(c). Here it should be emphasized that, although the other part of the bottom layer of the continuous oxide film contains less aluminium than this Al-enriched particle, the Fig. 9c indicated that the amount of aluminium in this bottom layer was still non-negligible, especially when comparing with the outer layer of the film. Below the right side of the oxide film shown in Fig. 9b, a particle was detected and speculated to be MgO because it is rich in Mg and O. According to Wang’s result [56], lots of discrete MgO particles can be formed on the surface of the Mg melt by the oxidation of Mg melt and Mg vapor. The MgO particles observed in our present work may be formed due to the same reasons. While, due to the differences in experimental conditions, less Mg melt can be vapored or react with O₂, thus only a few of MgO particles formed in our work. An enrichment of carbon was also found in the film, revealing that CO₂ was able to react with the melt, thus forming carbon or carbides. This carbon concentration was consistent with the relatively high carbon content of the oxide film shown in Table 3 (i.e., the dark region). In the area next to the oxide film.

Table 3. EDS results (wt.%) corresponding to the regions shown in Fig. 8 (cover gas: SF₆/ CO₂).

Empty Cell	C	O	Mg	F	Al	Zn	S	N
Dark region in Fig. 8(a)	7.25	3.64	69.82	3.82	7.03	0.86	–	–
Bright region in Fig. 8(a)	2.10	0.44	82.83	–	13.26	1.36	–	–

This cross-sectional observation of the oxide film on a test bar fracture surface (Fig. 9) further verified the schematic of the entrainment defect shown in Fig. 6(e). The entrainment defects formed in different atmospheres of SF₆/CO₂ and SF₆/air had similar structures, but their compositions were different.

3.3. Evolution of the oxide films in the oxidation cell

The results in Section 3.1 and 3.2 have shown the structures and compositions of entrainment defects formed in AZ91 castings under cover gases of SF₆/air and SF₆/CO₂. Different stages of the oxidation reaction may lead to the different structures and compositions of entrainment defects. Although Campbell has conjectured that an entrained gas may react with the surrounding melt, it is rarely reported that the reaction occurring between the Mg-alloy melt and entrapped cover gas. Previous researchers normally focus on the reaction between a Mg-alloy melt and the cover gas in an open environment [38,39,[46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], which was different from the situation of a cover gas trapped into the melt. To further understand the formation of the entrainment defect in an AZ91 alloy, the evolution process of oxide films of the entrainment defect was further studied using an oxidation cell.

Fig. 10 (a and d) shows a surface film held for 5 min in the oxidation cell, protected by 0.5%SF₆/air. There was only one single layer consisting of fluoride and oxide (MgF₂ and MgO). In this surface film. Sulphur was detected in the EDS spectrum, but its amount was too small to be recognized in the element map. The structure and composition of this oxide film was similar to the single-layered films of entrainment defects shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 10. Oxide films formed in the oxidation cell under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/air and held at 700 °C for (a) 5 min; (b) 10 min; (c) 30 min, and (d-f) the SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000) corresponding to the oxide film shown in (a-c) respectively, (d) 5 min; (e) 10 min; (f) 30 min. The red points in (c and f) are the location references, denoting the boundary of the F-enriched layer in different element maps.

After a holding time of 10 min, a thin (O, S)-enriched top layer (around 700 nm) appeared upon the preliminary F-enriched film, forming a multi-layered structure, as shown in Fig. 10(b and e). The thickness of the (O, S)-enriched top layer increased with increased holding time. As shown in Fig. 10(c and f), the oxide film held for 30 min also had a multi-layered structure, but the thickness of its (O, S)-enriched top layer (around 2.5 µm) was higher than the that of the 10-min oxide film. The multi-layered oxide films shown in Fig. 10(b-c) presented a similar appearance to the films of the sandwich-like defect shown in Fig. 5.

The different structures of the oxide films shown in Fig. 10 indicated that fluorides in the cover gas would be preferentially consumed due to the reaction with the AZ91 alloy melt. After the depletion of fluorides, the residual cover gas reacted further with the liquid AZ91 alloy, forming the top (O, S)-enriched layer in the oxide film. Therefore, the different structures and compositions of entrainment defects shown in Figs. 4 and 5 may be due to an ongoing oxidation reaction between melt and entrapped cover gas.

This multi-layered structure has not been reported in previous publications concerning the protective surface film formed on a Mg-alloy melt [38,[46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51]. This may be due to the fact that previous researchers carried out their experiments with an un-limited amount of cover gas, creating a situation where the fluorides in the cover gas were not able to become depleted. Therefore, the oxide film of an entrainment defect had behaviour traits similar to the oxide films shown in Fig. 10, but different from the oxide films formed on the Mg-alloy melt surface reported in [38,[46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51].

Similar with the oxide films held in SF₆/air, the oxide films formed in SF₆/CO₂ also had different structures with different holding times in the oxidation cell. Fig. 11(a) shows an oxide film, held on an AZ91 melt surface under a cover gas of 0.5%SF₆/CO₂ for 5 min. This film had a single-layered structure consisting of MgF₂. The existence of MgO could not be confirmed in this film. After the holding time of 30 min, the film had a multi-layered structure; the inner layer was of a compact and uniform appearance and composed of MgF₂, while the outer layer is the mixture of MgF₂ and MgO. Sulphur was not detected in this film, which was different from the surface film formed in 0.5%SF₆/air. Therefore, fluorides in the cover gas of 0.5%SF₆/CO₂ were also preferentially consumed at an early stage of the film growth process. Compared with the film formed in SF₆/air, the MgO in film formed in SF₆/CO₂ appeared later and sulphide did not appear within 30 min. It may mean that the formation and evolution of film in SF₆/air is faster than SF₆/CO_2. CO₂ may have subsequently reacted with the melt to form MgO, while sulphur-containing compounds accumulated in the cover gas and reacted to form sulphide in very late stage (may after 30 min in oxidation cell).

Fig. 11. Oxide films formed in the oxidation cell under a cover gas of 0.5%SF6/CO2, and their SEM-EDS element maps (using Philips JEOL7000). They were held at 700 °C for (a) 5 min; (b) 30 min. The red points in (b) are the location references, denoting the boundary between the top and bottom layers in the oxide film.

4. Discussion

4.1. Evolution of entrainment defects formed in SF₆/air

HSC software from Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for Windows (http://www.hsc-chemistry.net/) was used to carry out thermodynamic calculations needed to explore the reactions which might occur between the trapped gases and liquid AZ91 alloy. The solutions to the calculations suggest which products are most likely to form in the reaction process between a small amount of cover gas (i.e., the amount within a trapped bubble) and the AZ91-alloy melt.

In the trials, the pressure was set to 1 atm, and the temperature set to 700 °C. The amount of the cover gas was assumed to be 7 × 10⁻⁷ kg, with a volume of approximately 0.57 cm³ (3.14 × 10⁻⁸ kmol) for 0.5%SF₆/air, and 0.35 cm³ (3.12 × 10⁻⁸ kmol) for 0.5%SF₆/CO₂. The amount of the AZ91 alloy melt in contact with the trapped gas was assumed to be sufficient to complete all reactions. The decomposition products of SF₆ were SF₅, SF₄, SF₃, SF₂, F₂, S(g), S₂(g) and F(g) [57], [58], [59], [60].

Fig. 12 shows the equilibrium diagram of the thermodynamic calculation of the reaction between the AZ91 alloy and 0.5%SF₆/air. In the diagram, the reactants and products with less than 10⁻¹⁵ kmol have not been shown, as this was 5 orders of magnitude less than the amount of SF₆ present (≈ 1.57 × 10⁻¹⁰ kmol) and therefore would not affect the observed process in a practical way.

Fig. 12. An equilibrium diagram for the reaction between 7e-7 kg 0.5%SF6/air and a sufficient amount of AZ91 alloy. The X axis is the amount of AZ91 alloy melt having reacted with the entrained gas, and the vertical Y-axis is the amount of the reactants and products.

This reaction process could be divided into 3 stages.

Stage 1: The formation of fluorides. the AZ91 melt preferentially reacted with SF₆ and its decomposition products, producing MgF₂, AlF₃, and ZnF₂. However, the amount of ZnF₂ may have been too small to be detected practically (1.25 × 10⁻¹² kmol of ZnF₂ compared with 3 × 10⁻¹⁰ kmol of MgF₂), which may be the reason why Zn was not detected in any the oxide films shown in Sections 3.1–3.3. Meanwhile, sulphur accumulated in the residual gas as SO₂.

Stage 2: The formation of oxides. After the liquid AZ91 alloy had depleted all the available fluorides in the entrapped gas, the amount of AlF₃ and ZnF₂ quickly reduced due to a reaction with Mg. O₂(g) and SO₂ reacted with the AZ91 melt, forming MgO, Al₂O₃, MgAl₂O₄, ZnO, ZnSO₄ and MgSO₄. However, the amount of ZnO and ZnSO₄ would have been too small to be found practically by EDS (e.g. 9.5 × 10⁻¹² kmol of ZnO,1.38 × 10⁻¹⁴ kmol of ZnSO₄, in contrast to 4.68 × 10⁻¹⁰ kmol of MgF₂, when the amount of AZ91 on the X-axis is 2.5 × 10⁻⁹ kmol). In the experimental cases, the concentration of F in the cover gas is very low, whole the concentration f O is much higher. Therefore, the stage 1 and 2, i.e, the formation of fluoride and oxide may happen simultaneously at the beginning of the reaction, resulting in the formation of a singer-layered mixture of fluoride and oxide, as shown in Figs. 4 and 10(a). While an inner layer consisted of oxides but fluorides could form after the complete depletion of F element in the cover gas.

Stages 1- 2 theoretically verified the formation process of the multi-layered structure shown in Fig. 10.

The amount of MgAl₂O₄ and Al₂O₃ in the oxide film was of a sufficient amount to be detected, which was consistent with the oxide films shown in Fig. 4. However, the existence of aluminium could not be recognized in the oxide films grown in the oxidation cell, as shown in Fig. 10. This absence of Al may be due to the following reactions between the surface film and AZ91 alloy melt:(1)

Al₂O₃ + 3Mg + = 3MgO + 2Al, △G(700 °C) = -119.82 kJ/mol(2)

Mg + MgAl₂O₄ = MgO + Al, △G(700 °C) =-106.34 kJ/molwhich could not be simulated by the HSC software since the thermodynamic calculation was carried out under an assumption that the reactants were in full contact with each other. However, in a practical process, the AZ91 melt and the cover gas would not be able to be in contact with each other completely, due to the existence of the protective surface film.

Stage 3: The formation of Sulphide and nitride. After a holding time of 30 min, the gas-phase fluorides and oxides in the oxidation cell had become depleted, allowing the melt reaction with the residual gas, forming an additional sulphur-enriched layer upon the initial F-enriched or (F, O)-enriched surface film, thus resulting in the observed multi-layered structure shown in Fig. 10 (b and c). Besides, nitrogen reacted with the AZ91 melt until all reactions were completed. The oxide film shown in Fig. 6 may correspond to this reaction stage due to its nitride content. However, the results shows that the nitrides were not detected in the polished samples shown in Figs. 4 and 5, but only found on the test bar fracture surfaces. The nitrides may have hydrolysed during the sample preparation process, as follows [54]:(3)

Mg₃N₂ + 6H₂O =3Mg(OH)₂ + 2NH₃↑(4)

AlN+ 3H₂O =Al(OH)₃ + NH₃↑

In addition, Schmidt et al. [61] found that Mg₃N₂ and AlN could react to form ternary nitrides (Mg₃Al_nN_n+2, n= 1, 2, 3…). HSC software did not contain the database of ternary nitrides, and it could not be added into the calculation. The oxide films in this stage may also contain ternary nitrides.

4.2. Evolution of entrainment defects formed in SF₆/CO₂

Fig. 13 shows the results of the thermodynamic calculation between AZ91 alloy and 0.5%SF₆/CO₂. This reaction processes can also be divided into three stages.

Fig. 13. An equilibrium diagram for the reaction between 7e-7 kg 0.5%SF6/CO2 and a sufficient amount of AZ91 alloy. The X axis denotes the amount of Mg alloy melt having reacted with the entrained gas, and the vertical Y-axis denotes the amounts of the reactants and products.

Stage 1: The formation of fluorides. SF₆ and its decomposition products were consumed by the AZ91 melt, forming MgF₂, AlF₃, and ZnF₂. As in the reaction of AZ91 in 0.5%SF₆/air, the amount of ZnF₂ was too small to be detected practically (1.51 × 10⁻¹³ kmol of ZnF₂ compared with 2.67 × 10⁻¹⁰ kmol of MgF₂). Sulphur accumulated in the residual trapped gas as S₂(g) and a portion of the S₂(g) reacted with CO₂, to form SO₂ and CO. The products in this reaction stage were consistent with the film shown in Fig. 11(a), which had a single layer structure that contained fluorides only.

Stage 2: The formation of oxides. AlF₃ and ZnF₂ reacted with the Mg in the AZ91 melt, forming MgF₂, Al and Zn. The SO₂ began to be consumed, producing oxides in the surface film and S₂(g) in the cover gas. Meanwhile, the CO₂ directly reacted with the AZ91 melt, forming CO, MgO, ZnO, and Al₂O₃. The oxide films shown in Figs. 9 and 11(b) may correspond to this reaction stage due to their oxygen-enriched layer and multi-layered structure.

The CO in the cover gas could further react with the AZ91 melt, producing C. This carbon may further react with Mg to form Mg carbides, when the temperature reduced (during solidification period) [62]. This may be the reason for the high carbon content in the oxide film shown in Figs. 8–9. Liang et al. [39] also reported carbon-detection in an AZ91 alloy surface film protected by SO₂/CO₂. The produced Al₂O₃ may be further combined with MgO, forming MgAl₂O₄ [63]. As discussed in Section 4.1, the alumina and spinel can react with Mg, causing an absence of aluminium in the surface films, as shown in Fig. 11.

Stage 3: The formation of Sulphide. the AZ91 melt began to consume S₂(g) in the residual entrapped gas, forming ZnS and MgS. These reactions did not occur until the last stage of the reaction process, which could be the reason why the S-content in the defect shown Fig. 7(c) was small.

In summary, thermodynamic calculations indicate that the AZ91 melt will react with the cover gas to form fluorides firstly, then oxides and sulphides in the last. The oxide film in the different reaction stages would have different structures and compositions.

4.3. Effect of the carrier gases on consumption of the entrained gas and the reproducibility of AZ91 castings

The evolution processes of entrainment defects, formed in SF₆/air and SF₆/CO₂, have been suggested in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. The theoretical calculations were verified with respect to the corresponding oxide films found in practical samples. The atmosphere within an entrainment defect could be efficiently consumed due to the reaction with liquid Mg-alloy, in a scenario dissimilar to the Al-alloy system (i.e., nitrogen in an entrained air bubble would not efficiently react with Al-alloy melt [64,65], however, nitrogen would be more readily consumed in liquid Mg alloys, commonly referred to as “nitrogen burning” [66]).

The reaction between the entrained gas and the surrounding liquid Mg-alloy converted the entrained gas into solid compounds (e.g. MgO) within the oxide film, thus reducing the void volume of the entrainment defect and hence probably causing a collapse of the defect (e.g., if an entrained gas of air was depleted by the surrounding liquid Mg-alloy, under an assumption that the melt temperature is 700 °C and the depth of liquid Mg-alloy is 10 cm, the total volume of the final solid products would be 0.044% of the initial volume taken by the entrapped air).

The relationship between the void volume reduction of entrainment defects and the corresponding casting properties has been widely studied in Al-alloy castings. Nyahumwa and Campbell [16] reported that the Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) process caused the entrainment defects in Al-alloy castings to collapse and their oxide surfaces forced into contact. The fatigue lives of their castings were improved after HIP. Nyahumwa and Campbell [16] also suggested a potential bonding of the double oxide films that were in contact with each other, but there was no direct evidence to support this. This binding phenomenon was further investigated by Aryafar et.al.[8], who re-melted two Al-alloy bars with oxide skins in a steel tube and then carried out a tensile strength test on the solidified sample. They found that the oxide skins of the Al-alloy bars strongly bonded with each other and became even stronger with an extension of the melt holding time, indicating a potential “healing” phenomenon due to the consumption of the entrained gas within the double oxide film structure. In addition, Raidszadeh and Griffiths [9,19] successfully reduced the negative effect of entrainment defects on the reproducibility of Al-alloy castings, by extending the melt holding time before solidification, which allowed the entrained gas to have a longer time to react with the surrounding melt.

With consideration of the previous work mentioned, the consumption of the entrained gas in Mg-alloy castings may diminish the negative effect of entrainment defects in the following two ways.

(1) Bonding phenomenon of the double oxide films. The sandwich-like structure shown in Fig. 5 and 7 indicated a potential bonding of the double oxide film structure. However, more evidence is required to quantify the increase in strength due to the bonding of the oxide films.

(2) Void volume reduction of entrainment defects. The positive effect of void-volume reduction on the quality of castings has been widely demonstrated by the HIP process [67]. As the evolution processes discussed in Section 4.1–4.2, the oxide films of entrainment defects can grow together due to an ongoing reaction between the entrained gas and surrounding AZ91 alloy melt. The volume of the final solid products was significant small compared with the entrained gas (i.e., 0.044% as previously mentioned).

Therefore, the consumption rate of the entrained gas (i.e., the growth rate of oxide films) may be a critical parameter for improving the quality of AZ91 alloy castings. The oxide film growth rate in the oxidization cell was accordingly further investigated.

Fig. 14 shows a comparison of the surface film growth rates in different cover gases (i.e., 0.5%SF₆/air and 0.5%SF₆/CO₂). 15 random points on each sample were selected for film thickness measurements. The 95% confidence interval (95%CI) was computed under an assumption that the variation of the film thickness followed a Gaussian distribution. It can be seen that all the surface films formed in 0.5%SF₆/air grew faster than those formed in 0.5%SF₆/CO₂. The different growth rates suggested that the entrained-gas consumption rate of 0.5%SF₆/air was higher than that of 0.5%SF₆/CO₂, which was more beneficial for the consumption of the entrained gas.

Fig. 14. A comparison of the AZ91 alloy oxide film growth rates in 0.5%SF6/air and 0.5%SF6/CO2

It should be noted that, in the oxidation cell, the contact area of liquid AZ91 alloy and cover gas (i.e. the size of the crucible) was relatively small with consideration of the large volume of melt and gas. Consequently, the holding time for the oxide film growth within the oxidation cell was comparatively long (i.e., 5–30 min). However, the entrainment defects contained in a real casting are comparatively very small (i.e., a few microns size as shown in Figs. 3–6, and [7]), and the entrained gas is fully enclosed by the surrounding melt, creating a relatively large contact area. Hence the reaction time for cover gas and the AZ91 alloy melt may be comparatively short. In addition, the solidification time of real Mg-alloy sand castings can be a few minutes (e.g. Guo [68] reported that a Mg-alloy sand casting with 60 mm diameter required 4 min to be solidified). Therefore, it can be expected that an entrained gas trapped during an Mg-alloy melt pouring process will be readily consumed by the surrounding melt, especially for sand castings and large-size castings, where solidification times are long.

Therefore, the different cover gases (0.5%SF₆/air and 0.5%SF₆/CO₂) associated with different consumption rates of the entrained gases may affect the reproducibility of the final castings. To verify this assumption, the AZ91 castings produced in 0.5%SF₆/air and 0.5%SF₆/CO₂ were machined into test bars for mechanical evaluation. A Weibull analysis was carried out using both linear least square (LLS) method and non-linear least square (non-LLS) method [69].

Fig. 15(a-b) shows a traditional 2-p linearized Weibull plot of the UTS and elongation of the AZ91 alloy castings, obtained by the LLS method. The estimator used is P= (i-0.5)/N, which was suggested to cause the lowest bias among all the popular estimators [69,70]. The casting produced in SF₆/air has an UTS Weibull moduli of 16.9, and an elongation Weibull moduli of 5.0. In contrast, the UTS and elongation Weibull modulus of the casting produced in SF₆/CO₂ are 7.7 and 2.7 respectively, suggesting that the reproducibility of the casting protected by SF₆/CO₂ were much lower than that produced in SF₆/air.

Fig. 15. The Weibull modulus of AZ91 castings produced in different atmospheres, estimated by (a-b) the linear least square method, (c-d) the non-linear least square method, where SSR is the sum of residual squares.

In addition, the author’s previous publication [69] demonstrated a shortcoming of the linearized Weibull plots, which may cause a higher bias and incorrect R² interruption of the Weibull estimation. A Non-LLS Weibull estimation was therefore carried out, as shown in Fig. 15 (c-d). The UTS Weibull modulus of the SF₆/air casting was 20.8, while the casting produced under SF₆/CO₂ had a lower UTS Weibull modulus of 11.4, showing a clear difference in their reproducibility. In addition, the SF₆/air elongation (El%) dataset also had a Weibull modulus (shape = 5.8) higher than the elongation dataset of SF₆/CO₂ (shape = 3.1). Therefore, both the LLS and Non-LLS estimations suggested that the SF₆/air casting has a higher reproducibility than the SF₆/CO₂ casting. It supports the method that the use of air instead of CO₂ contributes to a quicker consumption of the entrained gas, which may reduce the void volume within the defects. Therefore, the use of 0.5%SF₆/air instead of 0.5%SF₆/CO₂ (which increased the consumption rate of the entrained gas) improved the reproducibility of the AZ91 castings.

However, it should be noted that not all the Mg-alloy foundries followed the casting process used in present work. The Mg-alloy melt in present work was degassed, thus reducing the effect of hydrogen on the consumption of the entrained gas (i.e., hydrogen could diffuse into the entrained gas, potentially suppressing the depletion of the entrained gas [7,71,72]). In contrast, in Mg-alloy foundries, the Mg-alloy melt is not normally degassed, since it was widely believed that there is not a ‘gas problem’ when casting magnesium and hence no significant change in tensile properties [73]. Although studies have shown the negative effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of Mg-alloy castings [41,42,73], a degassing process is still not very popular in Mg-alloy foundries.

Moreover, in present work, the sand mould cavity was flushed with the SF₆ cover gas prior to pouring [22]. However, not all the Mg-alloy foundries flushed the mould cavity in this way. For example, the Stone Foundry Ltd (UK) used sulphur powder instead of the cover-gas flushing. The entrained gas within their castings may be SO₂/air, rather than the protective gas.

Therefore, although the results in present work have shown that using air instead of CO₂ improved the reproducibility of the final casting, it still requires further investigations to confirm the effect of carrier gases with respect to different industrial Mg-alloy casting processes.

7. Conclusion

Entrainment defects formed in an AZ91 alloy were observed. Their oxide films had two types of structure: single-layered and multi-layered. The multi-layered oxide film can grow together forming a sandwich-like structure in the final casting.2.

Both the experimental results and the theoretical thermodynamic calculations demonstrated that fluorides in the trapped gas were depleted prior to the consumption of sulphur. A three-stage evolution process of the double oxide film defects has been suggested. The oxide films contained different combinations of compounds, depending on the evolution stage. The defects formed in SF₆/air had a similar structure to those formed in SF₆/CO₂, but the compositions of their oxide films were different. The oxide-film formation and evolution process of the entrainment defects were different from that of the Mg-alloy surface films previous reported (i.e., MgO formed prior to MgF₂).3.

The growth rate of the oxide film was demonstrated to be greater under SF₆/air than SF₆/CO₂, contributing to a quicker consumption of the damaging entrapped gas. The reproducibility of an AZ91 alloy casting improved when using SF₆/air instead of SF₆/CO₂.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge funding from the EPSRC LiME grant EP/H026177/1, and the help from Dr W.D. Griffiths and Mr. Adrian Carden (University of Birmingham). The casting work was carried out in University of Birmingham.

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Numerical study of the dam-break waves and Favre waves down sloped wet rigid-bed at laboratory scale

WenjunLiu^a BoWang^a YakunGuo^b^aState Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource and Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China^bFaculty of Engineering & Informatics, University of Bradford, BD7 1DP, UK

Highlights

경사진 습윤층에서 댐파괴유동과 FFavre 파를 수치적으로 조사하였다.
수직 대 수평 속도의 비율이 먼저 정량화됩니다.
유동 상태는 유상 경사가 큰 후기 단계에서 크게 변경됩니다.
Favre 파도는 수직 속도와 수직 가속도에 큰 영향을 미칩니다.
베드 전단응력의 변화는 베드 기울기와 꼬리물의 영향을 받습니다.

Abstract

The bed slope and the tailwater depth are two important ones among the factors that affect the propagation of the dam-break flood and Favre waves. Most previous studies have only focused on the macroscopic characteristics of the dam-break flows or Favre waves under the condition of horizontal bed, rather than the internal movement characteristics in sloped channel. The present study applies two numerical models, namely, large eddy simulation (LES) and shallow water equations (SWEs) models embedded in the CFD software package FLOW-3D to analyze the internal movement characteristics of the dam-break flows and Favre waves, such as water level, the velocity distribution, the fluid particles acceleration and the bed shear stress, under the different bed slopes and water depth ratios. The results under the conditions considered in this study show that there is a flow state transition in the flow evolution for the steep bed slope even in water depth ratio α = 0.1 (α is the ratio of the tailwater depth to the reservoir water depth). The flow state transition shows that the wavefront changes from a breaking state to undular. Such flow transition is not observed for the horizontal slope and mild bed slope. The existence of the Favre waves leads to a significant increase of the vertical velocity and the vertical acceleration. In this situation, the SWEs model has poor prediction. Analysis reveals that the variation of the maximum bed shear stress is affected by both the bed slope and tailwater depth. Under the same bed slope (e.g., S₀ = 0.02), the maximum bed shear stress position develops downstream of the dam when α = 0.1, while it develops towards the end of the reservoir when α = 0.7. For the same water depth ratio (e.g., α = 0.7), the maximum bed shear stress position always locates within the reservoir at S₀ = 0.02, while it appears in the downstream of the dam for S₀ = 0 and 0.003 after the flow evolves for a while. The comparison between the numerical simulation and experimental measurements shows that the LES model can predict the internal movement characteristics with satisfactory accuracy. This study improves the understanding of the effect of both the bed slope and the tailwater depth on the internal movement characteristics of the dam-break flows and Favre waves, which also provides a valuable reference for determining the flood embankment height and designing the channel bed anti-scouring facility.

Fig. 1. Sketch of related variables involved in shallow water model.

Fig. 2. Flume model in numerical simulation.

Fig. 3. Grid sensitivity analysis (a) water surface profile; (b) velocity profile.

Fig. 4. Sketch of experimental set-up for validating the velocity profile.

Fig. 5. Sketch of experimental set-up for validating the bed shear stress.

Fig. 6. Model validation results (a) variation of the velocity profile; (b) error value of the velocity profile; (c) variation of the bed shear stress; (d) error value of the bed shear stress.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of regional division.

Fig. 8. Variation of water surface profile (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 9. Froude number for α = 0.1 (a) variation with time; (b) variation with wavefront position.

Fig. 10. Characteristics of velocity distribution (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 11. Average proportion of the vertical velocity (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 12. Bed shear stress distribution (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 13. Variation of the maximum bed shear stress position with time (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 14. Time when the maximum bed shear stress appears at different positions (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Fig. 15. Movement characteristics of the fluid particles (a) α = 0.1; (b) α = 0.3; (c) α = 0.5; (d) α = 0.7.

Keywords

Dam-break flow, Bed slope, Wet bed, Velocity profile, Bed shear stress, Large eddy simulation

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Figure 3. Comparison of water surface profiles over porous media with 12 mm particle diameter in laboratory measurements (symbols) and numerical results (lines).

다공층에 대한 돌발 댐 붕괴의 3차원 유동 수치해석 시뮬레이션

A. Safarzadeh1*, P. Mohsenzadeh2, S. Abbasi3
1 Professor of Civil Eng., Water Engineering and Mineral Waters Research Center, Univ. of Mohaghegh Ardabili,Ardabil, Iran
2 M.Sc., Graduated of Civil-Hydraulic Structures Eng., Faculty of Eng., Univ. of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
3 M.Sc., Graduated of Civil -Hydraulic Structures Eng., Faculty of Eng., Univ. of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran Safarzadeh@uma.ac.ir

Highlights

유체 이동에 의해 생성된 RBF는 Ls-Dyna에서 Fluent, ICFD ALE 및 SPH 방법으로 시뮬레이션되었습니다.
RBF의 과예측은 유체가 메인 도메인에서 고속으로 분리될 때 발생합니다.
이 과잉 예측은 요소 크기, 시간 단계 크기 및 유체 모델에 따라 다릅니다.
유체 성능을 검증하려면 최대 RBF보다 임펄스가 권장됩니다.

Abstract

Dam break is a very important problem due to its effects on economy, security, human casualties and environmental consequences. In this study, 3D flow due to dam break over the porous substrate is numerically simulated and the effect of porosity, permeability and thickness of the porous bed and the water depth in the porous substrate are investigated. Classic models of dam break over a rigid bed and water infiltration through porous media were studied and results of the numerical simulations are compared with existing laboratory data. Validation of the results is performed by comparing the water surface profiles and wave front position with dam break on rigid and porous bed. Results showed that, due to the effect of dynamic wave in the initial stage of dam break, a local peak occurs in the flood hydrograph. The presence of porous bed reduces the acceleration of the flood wave relative to the flow over the solid bed and it decreases with the increase of the permeability of the bed. By increasing the permeability of the bed, the slope of the ascending limb of the flood hydrograph and the peak discharge drops. Furthermore, if the depth and permeability of the bed is such that the intrusive flow reaches the rigid substrate under the porous bed, saturation of the porous bed, results in a sharp increase in the slope of the flood hydrograph. The maximum values of the peak discharge at the end of the channel with porous bed occurred in saturated porous bed conditions.

댐 붕괴는 경제, 보안, 인명 피해 및 환경적 영향으로 인해 매우 중요한 문제입니다. 본 연구에서는 다공성 기재에 대한 댐 파괴로 인한 3차원 유동을 수치적으로 시뮬레이션하고 다공성 기재의 다공성, 투과도 및 다공성 층의 두께 및 수심의 영향을 조사합니다. 단단한 바닥에 대한 댐 파괴 및 다공성 매체를 통한 물 침투의 고전 모델을 연구하고 수치 시뮬레이션 결과를 기존 실험실 데이터와 비교합니다. 결과 검증은 강체 및 다공성 베드에서 댐 파단과 수면 프로파일 및 파면 위치를 비교하여 수행됩니다. 그 결과 댐파괴 초기의 동적파동의 영향으로 홍수수문곡선에서 국부첨두가 발생하는 것으로 나타났다. 다공성 베드의 존재는 고체 베드 위의 유동에 대한 홍수파의 가속을 감소시키고 베드의 투과성이 증가함에 따라 감소합니다. 베드의 투수성을 증가시켜 홍수 수문곡선의 오름차순 경사와 첨두방류량이 감소한다. 더욱이, 만약 층의 깊이와 투과성이 관입 유동이 다공성 층 아래의 단단한 기질에 도달하는 정도라면, 다공성 층의 포화는 홍수 수문곡선의 기울기의 급격한 증가를 초래합니다. 다공층이 있는 채널의 끝단에서 최대 방전 피크값은 포화 다공층 조건에서 발생하였다.

Keywords

Keywords: Dams Break, 3D modeling, Porous Bed, Permeability, Flood wave

Reference

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PDF VIEW

Fig. 1 Multi-physics phenomena in the laser-material interaction zone

COMPARISON BETWEEN GREEN AND
INFRARED LASER IN LASER POWDER BED
FUSION OF PURE COPPER THROUGH HIGH
FIDELITY NUMERICAL MODELLING AT MESOSCALE

316-L 스테인리스강의 레이저 분말 베드 융합 중 콜드 스패터 형성의 충실도 높은 수치 모델링

W.E. ALPHONSO¹*, M. BAYAT¹ and J.H. HATTEL¹
*Corresponding author
1Technical University of Denmark (DTU), 2800, Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark

ABSTRACT

L-PBF(Laser Powder Bed Fusion)는 금속 적층 제조(MAM) 기술로, 기존 제조 공정에 비해 부품 설계 자유도, 조립품 통합, 부품 맞춤화 및 낮은 툴링 비용과 같은 여러 이점을 산업에 제공합니다.

전기 코일 및 열 관리 장치는 일반적으로 높은 전기 및 열 전도성 특성으로 인해 순수 구리로 제조됩니다. 따라서 순동의 L-PBF가 가능하다면 기하학적으로 최적화된 방열판과 자유형 전자코일을 제작할 수 있습니다.

그러나 L-PBF로 조밀한 순동 부품을 생산하는 것은 적외선에 대한 낮은 광 흡수율과 높은 열전도율로 인해 어렵습니다. 기존의 L-PBF 시스템에서 조밀한 구리 부품을 생산하려면 적외선 레이저의 출력을 500W 이상으로 높이거나 구리의 광흡수율이 높은 녹색 레이저를 사용해야 합니다.

적외선 레이저 출력을 높이면 후면 반사로 인해 레이저 시스템의 광학 구성 요소가 손상되고 렌즈의 열 광학 현상으로 인해 공정이 불안정해질 수 있습니다. 이 작업에서 FVM(Finite Volume Method)에 기반한 다중 물리학 중간 규모 수치 모델은 Flow-3D에서 개발되어 용융 풀 역학과 궁극적으로 부품 품질을 제어하는 물리적 현상 상호 작용을 조사합니다.

녹색 레이저 열원과 적외선 레이저 열원은 기판 위의 순수 구리 분말 베드에 단일 트랙 증착을 생성하기 위해 개별적으로 사용됩니다.

용융 풀 역학에 대한 레이저 열원의 유사하지 않은 광학 흡수 특성의 영향이 탐구됩니다. 수치 모델을 검증하기 위해 단일 트랙이 구리 분말 베드에 증착되고 시뮬레이션된 용융 풀 모양과 크기가 비교되는 실험이 수행되었습니다.

녹색 레이저는 광흡수율이 높아 전도 및 키홀 모드 용융이 가능하고 적외선 레이저는 흡수율이 낮아 키홀 모드 용융만 가능하다. 레이저 파장에 대한 용융 모드의 변화는 궁극적으로 기계적, 전기적 및 열적 특성에 영향을 미치는 열 구배 및 냉각 속도에 대한 결과를 가져옵니다.

Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) is a Metal Additive Manufacturing (MAM) technology which offers several advantages to industries such as part design freedom, consolidation of assemblies, part customization and low tooling cost over conventional manufacturing processes. Electric coils and thermal management devices are generally manufactured from pure copper due to its high electrical and thermal conductivity properties. Therefore, if L-PBF of pure copper is feasible, geometrically optimized heat sinks and free-form electromagnetic coils can be manufactured. However, producing dense pure copper parts by L-PBF is difficult due to low optical absorptivity to infrared radiation and high thermal conductivity. To produce dense copper parts in a conventional L-PBF system either the power of the infrared laser must be increased above 500W, or a green laser should be used for which copper has a high optical absorptivity. Increasing the infrared laser power can damage the optical components of the laser systems due to back reflections and create instabilities in the process due to thermal-optical phenomenon of the lenses. In this work, a multi-physics meso-scale numerical model based on Finite Volume Method (FVM) is developed in Flow-3D to investigate the physical phenomena interaction which governs the melt pool dynamics and ultimately the part quality. A green laser heat source and an infrared laser heat source are used individually to create single track deposition on pure copper powder bed above a substrate. The effect of the dissimilar optical absorptivity property of laser heat sources on the melt pool dynamics is explored. To validate the numerical model, experiments were conducted wherein single tracks are deposited on a copper powder bed and the simulated melt pool shape and size are compared. As the green laser has a high optical absorptivity, a conduction and keyhole mode melting is possible while for the infrared laser only keyhole mode melting is possible due to low absorptivity. The variation in melting modes with respect to the laser wavelength has an outcome on thermal gradient and cooling rates which ultimately affect the mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties.

Keywords

Pure Copper, Laser Powder Bed Fusion, Finite Volume Method, multi-physics

Fig. 2 Framework for single laser track simulation model including powder bed and substrate (a) computational domain with boundaries (b) discretization of the domain with uniform quad mesh.

Fig. 3 2D melt pool contours from the numerical model compared to experiments [16] for (a) VED = 65 J/mm3 at 7 mm from the beginning of the single track (b) VED = 103 J/mm3 at 3 mm from the beginning of the single track (c) VED = 103 J/mm3 at 7 mm from the beginning of the single track. In the 2D contour, the non-melted region is indicated in blue, and the melted region is indicated by red and green when the VED is 65 J/mm3 and 103 J/mm3 respectively.

Fig. 4 3D temperature contour plots of during single track L-PBF process at time1.8 µs when (a) VED = 65 J/mm3 (b) VED = 103 J/mm3 along with 2D melt pool contours at 5 mm from the laser initial position. In the 2D contour, the non-melted region is indicated in blue, and the melted region is indicated by red and green when the VED is 65 J/mm3 and 103 J/mm3 respectively.

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Fig 3. Front view of the ejected powder particles due to the plume movement. Powder particles are colored by their respective temperature while trajectory colors show their magnitude at 0.007 seconds.

316-L 스테인리스강의 레이저 분말 베드 융합 중 콜드 스패터 형성의 충실도 높은 수치 모델링

M. BAYAT1,* , AND J. H. HATTEL1

Corresponding author
1 Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Building 425, Kgs. 2800 Lyngby, Denmark

ABSTRACT

Spatter and denudation are two very well-known phenomena occurring mainly during the laser powder bed fusion process and are defined as ejection and displacement of powder particles, respectively. The main driver of this phenomenon is the formation of a vapor plume jet that is caused by the vaporization of the melt pool which is subjected to the laser beam. In this work, a 3-dimensional transient turbulent computational fluid dynamics model coupled with a discrete element model is developed in the finite volume-based commercial software package Flow-3D AM to simulate the spatter phenomenon. The numerical results show that a localized low-pressure zone forms at the bottom side of the plume jet and this leads to a pseudo-Bernoulli effect that drags nearby powder particles into the area of influence of the vapor plume jet. As a result, the vapor plume acts like a momentum sink and therefore all nearby particles point are dragged towards this region. Furthermore, it is noted that due to the jet’s attenuation, powder particles start diverging from the central core region of the vapor plume as they move vertically upwards. It is moreover observed that only particles which are in the very central core region of the plume jet get sufficiently accelerated to depart the computational domain, while the rest of the dragged particles, especially those which undergo an early divergence from the jet axis, get stalled pretty fast as they come in contact with the resting fluid. In the last part of the work, two simulations with two different scanning speeds are carried out, where it is clearly observed that the angle between the departing powder particles and the vertical axis of the plume jet increases with increasing scanning speed.

스패터와 denudation은 주로 레이저 분말 베드 융합 과정에서 발생하는 매우 잘 알려진 두 가지 현상으로 각각 분말 입자의 배출 및 변위로 정의됩니다.

이 현상의 주요 동인은 레이저 빔을 받는 용융 풀의 기화로 인해 발생하는 증기 기둥 제트의 형성입니다. 이 작업에서 이산 요소 모델과 결합된 3차원 과도 난류 전산 유체 역학 모델은 스패터 현상을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 유한 체적 기반 상용 소프트웨어 패키지 Flow-3D AM에서 개발되었습니다.

수치적 결과는 플룸 제트의 바닥면에 국부적인 저압 영역이 형성되고, 이는 근처의 분말 입자를 증기 플룸 제트의 영향 영역으로 끌어들이는 의사-베르누이 효과로 이어진다는 것을 보여줍니다.

결과적으로 증기 기둥은 운동량 흡수원처럼 작용하므로 근처의 모든 입자 지점이 이 영역으로 끌립니다. 또한 제트의 감쇠로 인해 분말 입자가 수직으로 위쪽으로 이동할 때 증기 기둥의 중심 코어 영역에서 발산하기 시작합니다.

더욱이 플룸 제트의 가장 중심 코어 영역에 있는 입자만 계산 영역을 벗어날 만큼 충분히 가속되는 반면, 드래그된 나머지 입자, 특히 제트 축에서 초기 발산을 겪는 입자는 정체되는 것으로 관찰됩니다. 그들은 휴식 유체와 접촉하기 때문에 꽤 빠릅니다.

작업의 마지막 부분에서 두 가지 다른 스캔 속도를 가진 두 가지 시뮬레이션이 수행되었으며, 여기서 출발하는 분말 입자와 연기 제트의 수직 축 사이의 각도가 스캔 속도가 증가함에 따라 증가하는 것이 명확하게 관찰되었습니다.

Fig 1. Two different views of the computational domain for the fluid domain. The vapor plume is simulated by a moving momentum source with a prescribed temperature of 3000 K.

Fig 2. (a) and (b) are two snapshots taken at an x-y plane parallel to the powder layer plane before and 0.008 seconds after the start of the scanning process. (c) Shows a magnified view of (b) where detailed powder particles' movement along with their velocity magnitude and directions are shown. — Fig 2. (a) and (b) are two snapshots taken at an x-y plane parallel to the powder layer plane before and 0.008 seconds after the start of the scanning process. (c) Shows a magnified view of (b) where detailed powder particles’ movement along with their velocity magnitude and directions are shown.

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Fig. 1. Schematic figure showing the PREP with additional gas flowing on the end face of electrode.

플라즈마 회전 전극 공정 중 분말 형성에 대한 공정 매개변수 및 냉각 가스의 영향

Yujie Cui^a Yufan Zhao^a1Haruko Numata^b Kenta Yamanaka^a Huakang Bian^aKenta Aoyagi^aAkihikoChiba^a
^aInstitute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan^bDepartment of Materials Processing, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan

Highlights

•The limitation of increasing the rotational speed in decreasing powder size was clarified.

•Cooling and disturbance effects varied with the gas flowing rate.

•Inclined angle of the residual electrode end face affected powder formation.

•Additional cooling gas flowing could be applied to control powder size.

Abstract

The plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) is rapidly becoming an important powder fabrication method in additive manufacturing. However, the low production rate of fine PREP powder limits the development of PREP. Herein, we investigated different factors affecting powder formation during PREP by combining experimental methods and numerical simulations. The limitation of increasing the rotation electrode speed in decreasing powder size is attributed to the increased probability of adjacent droplets recombining and the decreased tendency of granulation. The effects of additional Ar/He gas flowing on the rotational electrode on powder formation is determined through the cooling effect, the disturbance effect, and the inclined effect of the residual electrode end face simultaneously. A smaller-sized powder was obtained in the He atmosphere owing to the larger inclined angle of the residual electrode end face compared to the Ar atmosphere. Our research highlights the route for the fabrication of smaller-sized powders using PREP.

플라즈마 회전 전극 공정(PREP)은 적층 제조 에서 중요한 분말 제조 방법으로 빠르게 자리잡고 있습니다. 그러나 미세한 PREP 분말의 낮은 생산율은 PREP의 개발을 제한합니다. 여기에서 우리는 실험 방법과 수치 시뮬레이션을 결합하여 PREP 동안 분말 형성에 영향을 미치는 다양한 요인을 조사했습니다. 분말 크기 감소에서 회전 전극 속도 증가의 한계는 인접한 액적 재결합 확률 증가 및 과립화 경향 감소에 기인합니다.. 회전 전극에 흐르는 추가 Ar/He 가스가 분말 형성에 미치는 영향은 냉각 효과, 외란 효과 및 잔류 전극 단면의 경사 효과를 통해 동시에 결정됩니다. He 분위기에서는 Ar 분위기에 비해 잔류 전극 단면의 경사각이 크기 때문에 더 작은 크기의 분말이 얻어졌다. 우리의 연구는 PREP를 사용하여 더 작은 크기의 분말을 제조하는 경로를 강조합니다.

Keywords

Plasma rotating electrode process

Ti-6Al-4 V alloy, Rotating speed, Numerical simulation, Gas flowing, Powder size

Introduction

With the development of additive manufacturing, there has been a significant increase in high-quality powder production demand [1,2]. The initial powder characteristics are closely related to the uniform powder spreading [3,4], packing density [5], and layer thickness observed during additive manufacturing [6], thus determining the mechanical properties of the additive manufactured parts [7,8]. Gas atomization (GA) [9–11], centrifugal atomization (CA) [12–15], and the plasma rotating electrode process (PREP) are three important powder fabrication methods.

Currently, GA is the dominant powder fabrication method used in additive manufacturing [16] for the fabrication of a wide range of alloys [11]. GA produces powders by impinging a liquid metal stream to droplets through a high-speed gas flow of nitrogen, argon, or helium. With relatively low energy consumption and a high fraction of fine powders, GA has become the most popular powder manufacturing technology for AM.

The entrapped gas pores are generally formed in the powder after solidification during GA, in which the molten metal is impacted by a high-speed atomization gas jet. In addition, satellites are formed in GA powder when fine particles adhere to partially molten particles.

The gas pores of GA powder result in porosity generation in the additive manufactured parts, which in turn deteriorates its mechanical properties because pores can become crack initiation sites [17]. In CA, a molten metal stream is poured directly onto an atomizer disc spinning at a high rotational speed. A thin film is formed on the surface of the disc, which breaks into small droplets due to the centrifugal force. Metal powder is obtained when these droplets solidify.

Compared with GA powder, CA powder exhibits higher sphericity, lower impurity content, fewer satellites, and narrower particle size distribution [12]. However, very high speed is required to obtain fine powder by CA. In PREP, the molten metal, melted using the plasma arc, is ejected from the rotating rod through centrifugal force. Compared with GA powder, PREP-produced powders also have higher sphericity and fewer pores and satellites [18].

For instance, PREP-fabricated Ti6Al-4 V alloy powder with a powder size below 150 μm exhibits lower porosity than gas-atomized powder [19], which decreases the porosity of additive manufactured parts. Furthermore, the process window during electron beam melting was broadened using PREP powder compared to GA powder in Inconel 718 alloy [20] owing to the higher sphericity of the PREP powder.

In summary, PREP powder exhibits many advantages and is highly recommended for powder-based additive manufacturing and direct energy deposition-type additive manufacturing. However, the low production rate of fine PREP powder limits the widespread application of PREP powder in additive manufacturing.

Although increasing the rotating speed is an effective method to decrease the powder size [21,22], the reduction in powder size becomes smaller with the increased rotating speed [23]. The occurrence of limiting effects has not been fully clarified yet.

Moreover, the powder size can be decreased by increasing the rotating electrode diameter [24]. However, these methods are quite demanding for the PREP equipment. For instance, it is costly to revise the PREP equipment to meet the demand of further increasing the rotating speed or electrode diameter.

Accordingly, more feasible methods should be developed to further decrease the PREP powder size. Another factor that influences powder formation is the melting rate [25]. It has been reported that increasing the melting rate decreases the powder size of Inconel 718 alloy [26].

In contrast, the powder size of SUS316 alloy was decreased by decreasing the plasma current within certain ranges. This was ascribed to the formation of larger-sized droplets from fluid strips with increased thickness and spatial density at higher plasma currents [27]. The powder size of NiTi alloy also decreases at lower melting rates [28]. Consequently, altering the melting rate, varied with the plasma current, is expected to regulate the PREP powder size.

Furthermore, gas flowing has a significant influence on powder formation [27,29–31]. On one hand, the disturbance effect of gas flowing promotes fluid granulation, which in turn contributes to the formation of smaller-sized powder [27]. On the other hand, the cooling effect of gas flowing facilitates the formation of large-sized powder due to increased viscosity and surface tension. However, there is a lack of systematic research on the effect of different gas flowing on powder formation during PREP.

Herein, the authors systematically studied the effects of rotating speed, electrode diameter, plasma current, and gas flowing on the formation of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy powder during PREP as additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V alloy exhibits great application potential [32]. Numerical simulations were conducted to explain why increasing the rotating speed is not effective in decreasing powder size when the rotation speed reaches a certain level. In addition, the different factors incited by the Ar/He gas flowing on powder formation were clarified.

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Flow Field in a Sloped Channel with Damaged and Undamaged Piers: Numerical and Experimental Studies

Ehsan Oveici, Omid Tayari & Navid Jalalkamali
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering volume 25, pages4240–4251 (2021)Cite this article

Abstract

본 논문은 경사가 완만한 수로에서 손상되거나 손상되지 않은 교각 주변의 유동 패턴을 분석했습니다. 실험은 길이가 12m이고 기울기가 0.008인 직선 수로에서 수행되었습니다. Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter(ADV)를 이용하여 3차원 유속 데이터를 수집하였고, 그 결과를 PIV(Particle Image Velocimetry) 데이터와 분석하여 비교하였습니다.

다중 블록 옵션이 있는 취수구의 퇴적물 시뮬레이션(SSIIM)은 이 연구에서 흐름의 수치 시뮬레이션을 위해 통합되었습니다. 일반적으로 비교에서 얻은 결과는 수치 데이터와 실험 데이터 간의 적절한 일치를 나타냅니다. 결과는 모든 경우에 수로 입구에서 2m 거리에서 기복적 수압 점프가 발생했음을 보여주었습니다.

경사진 수로의 최대 베드 전단응력은 2개의 손상 및 손상되지 않은 교각을 설치하기 위한 수평 수로의 12배였습니다. 이와 같은 경사수로 교각의 위치에 따라 상류측 수위는 수평수로의 유사한 조건에 비해 72.5% 감소한 반면, 이 감소량은 경사면에서 다른 경우에 비해 8.3% 감소하였다. 채널 또한 두 교각이 있는 경우 최대 Froude 수는 수평 수로의 5.7배였습니다.

This paper analyzed the flow pattern around damaged and undamaged bridge piers in a channel with a mild slope. The experiments were carried out on a straight channel with a length of 12 meters and a slope of 0.008. Acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) was employed to collect three-dimensional flow velocity data, and the results were analyzed and compared with particle image velocimetry (PIV) data. Sediment Simulation in Intakes with Multiblock option (SSIIM) was incorporated for the numerical simulation of the flow in this study. Generally, the results obtained from the comparisons referred to the appropriate agreement between the numerical and the experimental data. The results showed that an undular hydraulic jump occurred at a distance of two meters from the channel entrance in every case; the maximum bed shear stress in the sloped channel was 12 times that in a horizontal channel for installing two damaged and undamaged piers. With this position of the piers in the sloped channel, the upstream water level underwent a 72.5% reduction compared to similar conditions in a horizontal channel, while the amount of this water level decrease was equal to 8.3% compared to the other cases in a sloped channel. In addition, with the presence of both piers, the maximum Froude number was 5.7 times that in a horizontal channel.

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The Study of the effect of step penetration depth on exchanges between surface and subsurface fluxes

Authors

¹ irrigation department, university of Tehran

² Dep. of Water Engineering, Faculty of Water and Soil, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Golestan.

³ Assistant Professor, Department of Irrigation and Reclamation Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, P. O. Box 4111, Karaj, 31587-77871, Iran.

Abstract

The exchange of surface and subsurface flows in riverbeds, especially upstream of control structures as an important ecological area, is very important and noteworthy. The natural morphology of rivers and various in-stream structures along the flow path are important factors in the formation of such flows. Since the in-stream structures in the flow path have a more controlled and effective role than the morphology of rivers in the formation of these exchanges, in this study the effect of the penetration depth of these structures in the porous bed on the characteristics of exchange flows through experiments and Numerical simulation has been investigated. The experiments were performed in a flume with a length of 10 m, width of 20 cm, depth of 30 cm and a slope of 0.01, for three different penetration depths. Potassium permanganate detector was used for tracking the flow. In addition, to obtain exchange flow characteristics; the mainstream and the exchange pattern were simulated by particle tracking method using Flow 3D software. The results showed that in the Reynolds range 1020 to 3450, with increasing the penetration depth of the structure from 0.09 to 0.13 m, the retention time of the exchange flow increases up to 6.6%. In addition, the length of the effect of the structure up to 9%, the length of the exchange path up to 4.6% and the penetration depth of the exchange increases up to 7.7% while the exchange rate decreases to 22%. Therefore, in order to increase the exchange rate, it is recommended to use a structure with a lower penetration depth and to increase the retention time, a structure with a greater penetration depth is recommended.

중요한 생태 지역으로서 특히 제어 구조물의 상류 하천 바닥에서 지표 및 지하 흐름의 교환은 매우 중요하고 주목할 만합니다. 하천의 자연적 형태와 유동 경로를 따라 흐르는 다양한 하천 구조는 이러한 유동 형성에 중요한 요소입니다.

흐름 경로의 유류 구조는 이러한 교환의 형성에서 강의 형태보다 더 제어되고 효과적인 역할을 하기 때문에 본 연구에서는 다공성 층에서 이러한 구조의 침투 깊이가 교환의 특성에 미치는 영향 실험과 수치 시뮬레이션을 통한 흐름이 조사되었습니다.

실험은 길이 10m, 너비 20cm, 깊이 30cm, 기울기 0.01의 수로에서 세 가지 다른 침투 깊이에 대해 수행되었습니다. 흐름을 추적하기 위해 과망간산 칼륨 검출기가 사용되었습니다. 또한, 교환 흐름 특성을 얻기 위해; Flow 3D 소프트웨어를 사용하여 입자 추적 방법으로 주류 및 교환 패턴을 시뮬레이션했습니다.

결과는 Reynolds 범위 1020 ~ 3450에서 구조물의 침투 깊이가 0.09에서 0.13m로 증가함에 따라 교환 흐름의 체류 시간이 최대 6.6%까지 증가함을 보여주었습니다. 또한 구조의 효과 길이는 최대 9%, 교환 경로의 길이는 최대 4.6%, 교환의 침투 깊이는 최대 7.7%까지 증가하는 반면 환율은 22%로 감소합니다.

따라서 환율을 높이기 위해서는 침투깊이가 낮은 구조를 사용하는 것이 좋으며, 머무름 시간을 늘리기 위해서는 침투깊이가 큰 구조를 사용하는 것이 좋습니다.

Keywords

Fig. 1. Model geometry with the computational domain, extrusion nozzle, toolpath, and boundary conditions. The model is presented while printing the fifth layer.

재료 압출 적층 제조에서 증착된 층의 안정성 및 변형

Md Tusher Mollah Raphaël 사령관 Marcin P. Serdeczny David B. Pedersen Jon Spangenberg덴마크 공과 대학 기계 공학과, Kgs. 덴마크 링비

2020년 12월 22일 접수, 2021년 5월 1일 수정, 2021년 7월 15일 수락, 2021년 7월 21일 온라인 사용 가능, 기록 버전 2021년 8월 17일 .

Abstract

이 문서는 재료 압출 적층 제조 에서 여러 레이어를 인쇄하는 동안 증착 흐름의 전산 유체 역학 시뮬레이션 을 제공합니다 . 개발된 모델은 증착된 레이어의 형태를 예측하고 점소성 재료 를 인쇄하는 동안 레이어 변형을 캡처합니다 . 물리학은 일반화된 뉴턴 유체 로 공식화된 Bingham 구성 모델의 연속성 및 운동량 방정식에 의해 제어됩니다. . 증착된 층의 단면 모양이 예측되고 재료의 다양한 구성 매개변수에 대해 층의 변형이 연구됩니다. 층의 변형은 인쇄물의 정수압과 압출시 압출압력으로 인한 것임을 알 수 있다. 시뮬레이션에 따르면 항복 응력이 높을수록 변형이 적은 인쇄물이 생성되는 반면 플라스틱 점도 가 높을수록 증착된 레이어에서변형이 커 집니다 . 또한, 인쇄 속도, 압출 속도 의 영향, 층 높이 및 인쇄된 층의 변형에 대한 노즐 직경을 조사합니다. 마지막으로, 이 모델은 후속 인쇄된 레이어의 정수압 및 압출 압력을 지원하기 위해 증착 후 점소성 재료가 요구하는 항복 응력의 필요한 증가에 대한 보수적인 추정치를 제공합니다.

This paper presents computational fluid dynamics simulations of the deposition flow during printing of multiple layers in material extrusion additive manufacturing. The developed model predicts the morphology of the deposited layers and captures the layer deformations during the printing of viscoplastic materials. The physics is governed by the continuity and momentum equations with the Bingham constitutive model, formulated as a generalized Newtonian fluid. The cross-sectional shapes of the deposited layers are predicted, and the deformation of layers is studied for different constitutive parameters of the material. It is shown that the deformation of layers is due to the hydrostatic pressure of the printed material, as well as the extrusion pressure during the extrusion. The simulations show that a higher yield stress results in prints with less deformations, while a higher plastic viscosity leads to larger deformations in the deposited layers. Moreover, the influence of the printing speed, extrusion speed, layer height, and nozzle diameter on the deformation of the printed layers is investigated. Finally, the model provides a conservative estimate of the required increase in yield stress that a viscoplastic material demands after deposition in order to support the hydrostatic and extrusion pressure of the subsequently printed layers.

키워드

점성 플라스틱 재료, 재료 압출 적층 제조(MEX-AM), 다층 증착, 전산유체역학(CFD), 변형 제어
Viscoplastic Materials, Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing (MEX-AM), Multiple-Layers Deposition, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Deformation Control

Introduction

Three-dimensional printing of viscoplastic materials has grown in popularity over the recent years, due to the success of Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing (MEX-AM) [1]. Viscoplastic materials, such as ceramic pastes [2,3], hydrogels [4], thermosets [5], and concrete [6], behave like solids when the applied load is below their yield stress, and like a fluid when the applied load exceeds their yield stress [7]. Viscoplastic materials are typically used in MEX-AM techniques such as Robocasting [8], and 3D concrete printing [9,10]. The differences between these technologies lie in the processing of the material before the extrusion and in the printing scale (from microscale to big area additive manufacturing). In these extrusion-based technologies, the structure is fabricated in a layer-by-layer approach onto a solid surface/support [11, 12]. During the process, the material is typically deposited on top of the previously printed layers that may be already solidified (wet-on-dry printing) or still deformable (wet-on-wet printing) [1]. In wet-on-wet printing, control over the deformation of layers is important for the stability and geometrical accuracy of the prints. If the material is too liquid after the deposition, it cannot support the pressure of the subsequently deposited layers. On the other hand, the material flowability is a necessity during extrusion through the nozzle. Several experimental studies have been performed to analyze the physics of the extrusion and deposition of viscoplastic materials, as reviewed in Refs. [13–16]. The experimental measurements can be supplemented with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to gain a more complete picture of MEX-AM. A review of the CFD studies within the material processing and deposition in 3D concrete printing was presented by Roussel et al. [17]. Wolfs et al. [18] predicted numerically the failure-deformation of a cylindrical structure due to the self-weight by calculating the stiffness and strength of the individual layers. It was found that the deformations can take place in all layers, however the most critical deformation occurs in the bottom layer. Comminal et al. [19,20] presented three-dimensional simulations of the material deposition in MEX-AM, where the fluid was approximated as Newtonian. Subsequently, the model was experimentally validated in Ref. [21] for polymer-based MEX-AM, and extended to simulate the deposition of multiple layers in Ref. [22], where the previously printed material was assumed solid. Xia et al. [23] simulated the influence of the viscoelastic effects on the shape of deposited layers in MEX-AM. A numerical model for simulating the deposition of a viscoplastic material was recently presented and experimentally validated in Refs. [24] and [25]. These studies focused on predicting the cross-sectional shape of a single printed layer for different processing conditions (relative printing speed, and layer height). Despite these research efforts, a limited number of studies have focused on investigating the material deformations in wet-on-wet printing when multiple layers are deposited on top of each other. This paper presents CFD simulations of the extrusion-deposition flow of a viscoplastic material for several subsequent layers (viz. three- and five-layers). The material is continuously printed one layer over another on a fixed solid surface. The rheology of the viscoplastic material is approximated by the Bingham constitutive equation that is formulated using the Generalized Newtonian Fluid (GNF) model. The CFD model is used to predict the cross-sectional shapes of the layers and their deformations while printing the next layers on top. Moreover, the simulations are used to quantify the extrusion pressure applied by the deposited material on the substrate, and the previously printed layers. Numerically, it is investigated how the process parameters (i.e., the extrusion speed, printing speed, nozzle diameter, and layer height) and the material rheology affect the deformations of the deposited layers. Section 2 describes the methodology of the study. Section 3 presents and discusses the results. The study is summarized and concluded in Section 4.

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원문 보기

Gating System Design Based on Numerical Simulation and Production Experiment Verification of Aluminum Alloy Bracket Fabricated by Semi-solid Rheo-Die Casting Process

반고체 레오 다이 캐스팅 공정으로 제작된 알루미늄 합금 브래킷의 수치 시뮬레이션 및 생산 실험 검증을 기반으로 한 게이팅 시스템 설계

International Journal of Metalcasting volume 16, pages878–893 (2022)Cite this article

Abstract

In this study a gating system including sprue, runner and overflows for semi-solid rheocasting of aluminum alloy was designed by means of numerical simulations with a commercial software. The effects of pouring temperature, mold temperature and injection speed on the filling process performance of semi-solid die casting were studied. Based on orthogonal test analysis, the optimal die casting process parameters were selected, which were metal pouring temperature 590 °C, mold temperature 260 °C and injection velocity 0.5 m/s. Semi-solid slurry preparation process of Swirled Enthalpy Equilibration Device (SEED) was used for die casting production experiment. Aluminum alloy semi-solid bracket components were successfully produced with the key die casting process parameters selected, which was consistent with the simulation result. The design of semi-solid gating system was further verified by observing and analyzing the microstructure of different zones of the casting. The characteristic parameters, particle size and shape factor of microstructure of the produced semi-solid casting showed that the semi-solid aluminum alloy components are of good quality.

이 연구에서 알루미늄 합금의 반고체 레오캐스팅을 위한 스프루, 러너 및 오버플로를 포함하는 게이팅 시스템은 상용 소프트웨어를 사용한 수치 시뮬레이션을 통해 설계되었습니다. 주입 온도, 금형 온도 및 사출 속도가 반고체 다이캐스팅의 충전 공정 성능에 미치는 영향을 연구했습니다. 직교 테스트 분석을 기반으로 금속 주입 온도 590°C, 금형 온도 260°C 및 사출 속도 0.5m/s인 최적의 다이 캐스팅 공정 매개변수가 선택되었습니다. Swirled Enthalpy Equilibration Device(SEED)의 반고체 슬러리 제조 공정을 다이캐스팅 생산 실험에 사용하였다. 알루미늄 합금 반고체 브래킷 구성 요소는 시뮬레이션 결과와 일치하는 주요 다이 캐스팅 공정 매개변수를 선택하여 성공적으로 생산되었습니다. 반고체 게이팅 시스템의 설계는 주조의 다른 영역의 미세 구조를 관찰하고 분석하여 추가로 검증되었습니다. 생산된 반고체 주조물의 특성 매개변수, 입자 크기 및 미세 구조의 형상 계수는 반고체 알루미늄 합금 부품의 품질이 양호함을 보여주었습니다.

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Keywords

semi-solid rheo-die casting
gating system
process parameters
numerical simulation
microstructure

Figure 2. Schematic diagram for pilot-scale cooling-water circulation system (a) along with a real picture of the system (b).

Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Chlorine-Dynamics Modeling of In-Situ Chlorination Systems for Cooling Systems

Jongchan Yi 1, Jonghun Lee 1, Mohd Amiruddin Fikri 2,3, Byoung-In Sang 4 and Hyunook Kim 1,*

Abstract

염소화는 상대적인 효율성과 저렴한 비용으로 인해 발전소 냉각 시스템에서 생물학적 오염을 제어하는데 선호되는 방법입니다. 해안 지역에 발전소가 있는 경우 바닷물을 사용하여 현장에서 염소를 전기화학적으로 생성할 수 있습니다. 이를 현장 전기염소화라고 합니다. 이 접근 방식은 유해한 염소화 부산물이 적고 염소를 저장할 필요가 없다는 점을 포함하여 몇 가지 장점이 있습니다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 이 전기화학적 공정은 실제로는 아직 초기 단계에 있습니다. 이 연구에서는 파일럿 규모 냉각 시스템에서 염소 붕괴를 시뮬레이션하기 위해 병렬 1차 동역학을 적용했습니다. 붕괴가 취수관을 따라 발생하기 때문에 동역학은 전산유체역학(CFD) 코드에 통합되었으며, 이후에 파이프의 염소 거동을 시뮬레이션하는데 적용되었습니다. 실험과 시뮬레이션 데이터는 강한 난류가 형성되는 조건하에서도 파이프 벽을 따라 염소 농도가 점진적인 것으로 나타났습니다. 염소가 중간보다 파이프 표면을 따라 훨씬 더 집중적으로 남아 있다는 사실은 전기 염소화를 기반으로 하는 시스템의 전체 염소 요구량을 감소시킬 수 있었습니다. 현장 전기 염소화 방식의 냉각 시스템은 직접 주입 방식에 필요한 염소 사용량의 1/3만 소비했습니다. 따라서 현장 전기염소화는 해안 지역의 발전소에서 바이오파울링 제어를 위한 비용 효율적이고 환경 친화적인 접근 방식으로 사용될 수 있다고 결론지었습니다.

Chlorination is the preferred method to control biofouling in a power plant cooling system due to its comparative effectiveness and low cost. If a power plant is located in a coastal area, chlorine can be electrochemically generated in-situ using seawater, which is called in-situ electrochlorination; this approach has several advantages including fewer harmful chlorination byproducts and no need for chlorine storage. Nonetheless, this electrochemical process is still in its infancy in practice. In this study, a parallel first-order kinetics was applied to simulate chlorine decay in a pilot-scale cooling system. Since the decay occurs along the water-intake pipe, the kinetics was incorporated into computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes, which were subsequently applied to simulate chlorine behavior in the pipe. The experiment and the simulation data indicated that chlorine concentrations along the pipe wall were incremental, even under the condition where a strong turbulent flow was formed. The fact that chlorine remained much more concentrated along the pipe surface than in the middle allowed for the reduction of the overall chlorine demand of the system based on the electro-chlorination. The cooling system, with an in-situ electro-chlorination, consumed only 1/3 of the chlorine dose demanded by the direct injection method. Therefore, it was concluded that in-situ electro-chlorination could serve as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach for biofouling control at power plants on coastal areas.

Keywords

computational fluid dynamics; power plant; cooling system; electro-chlorination; insitu chlorination

Figure 1. Electrodes and batch experiment set-up. (a) Two cylindrical electrodes used in this study. (b) Batch experiment set-up for kinetic tests.

Figure 3. Free chlorine decay curves in seawater with different TOC and initial chlorine concentration. Each line represents the predicted concentration of chlorine under a given condition. (a) Artificial seawater solution with 1 mg L−1 of TOC; (b) artificial seawater solution with 2 mg L−1 of TOC; (c) artificial seawater solution with 3 mg L−1 of TOC; (d) West Sea water (1.3 mg L−1 of TOC).

Figure 4. Correlation between model and experimental data in the chlorine kinetics using seawater.

Figure 5. Free chlorine concentrations in West Sea water under different current conditions in an insitu electro-chlorination system.

Figure 6. Free chlorine distribution along the sampling ports under different flow rates. Each dot represents experimental data, and each point on the black line is the expected chlorine concentration obtained from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation with a parallel first-order decay model. The red-dotted line is the desirable concentration at the given flow rate: (a) 600 L min−1 of flow rate, (b) 700 L min−1 of flow rate, (c) 800 L min−1 of flow rate, (d) 900 L min−1 of flow rate.

Figure 7. Fluid contour images from CFD simulation of the electro-chlorination experiment. Inlet flow rate is 800 L min−1. Outlet pressure was set to 10.8 kPa. (a) Chlorine concentration; (b) expanded view of electrode side in image (a); (c) velocity magnitude; (d) pressure.

Figure 8. Chlorine concentration contour in the simulation of full-scale in-situ electro-chlorination with different cathode positions. The pipe diameter is 2 m and the flow rate is 14 m3 s−1. The figure shows 10 m of the pipeline. (a) The simulation result when the cathode is placed on the surface of the pipe wall. (b) The simulation result when the cathode is placed on the inside of the pipe with 100 mm of distance from the pipe wall.

Figure 9. Comparison of in-situ electro-chlorination and direct chlorine injection in full-scale applications. (a) Estimated chlorine concentrations along the pipe surface. (b) Relative chlorine demands.

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Fig 2(b) Observed velocity field for aspect ratio 0.25(Sukhodolov 2002)

고정 베드의 불침투성 토양에서 흐름 패턴의 수치 시뮬레이션

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FLOW PATTERN IN SERIES OF IMPERMEABLE GROYNES IN FIXED BED

Kafle, Mukesh Raj¹
¹Asst. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Nepal
Email: mkafle@pcampus.edu.np

Abstract

This paper presents a numerical simulation of recirculating flow patterns in groyne fields. Moreover, it entails the concept determination of proper spacing of vertical unsubmerged and impermeable groynesin seriesto control the bank erosion. Flow pattern between the groynes varies along their space. The flow in groyne field may significantly affect the flow change, bed change, bank erosion and condition of habitat. In this regard, an assessment of flow along the space of groynes will yield important data needed to diversify the object of groyne installation. So, knowledge about determination of the proper spacing of groynes in groyne field is important. Space of vertical groynes was set from 1.5 to 10 times the length of groynes. The velocity field between groynes was simulated by using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model Nays 2D. Simulated velocity field was compared with existing experimentaldata for the same parameter, which agreed satisfactorily. Based on simulated results,the optimal spacing of vertical groynes to control the bank erosion was recommended.

이 논문은 groyne 필드에서 재순환 흐름 패턴의 수치 시뮬레이션을 제공합니다. 더욱이, 그것은 제방 침식을 제어하기 위해 수직 비침수 및 불침투성 그로이네신 시리즈의 적절한 간격의 개념 결정을 수반합니다. groynes 사이의 흐름 패턴은 공간에 따라 다릅니다. groyne field의 흐름은 흐름 변화, 하상 변화, 제방 침식 및 서식지 상태에 중대한 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다. 이와 관련하여, groyne 공간을 따른 흐름의 평가는 groyne 설치 대상을 다양화하는 데 필요한 중요한 데이터를 산출할 것입니다. 따라서, groyne field에서 groyne의 적절한 간격 결정에 대한 지식이 중요합니다. 수직 여백의 간격은 여아 길이의 1.5배에서 10배 사이로 설정하였다. groyne 사이의 속도장은 CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) 모델 Nays 2D를 사용하여 시뮬레이션되었습니다. 시뮬레이션된 속도장은 동일한 매개변수에 대해 기존 실험 데이터와 비교되었으며 만족스럽게 일치했습니다. 모의 결과를 바탕으로 제방 침식을 억제하기 위한 최적의 수직 제방 간격을 제안하였다.

Introduction
Spur dikes or groynes are used to protect river banks from erosion and also keep the channel
navigable.Depending upon the flow characteristics, spur-dikes may be classified as submerged and unsubmerged. Also, based on the permeability, spur dikes are further classified as permeable and
impermeable. Herein, un-submerged !impermeable spur dikes are dealt. These structures are built from the river bank into the stream flow and usually built in group. Construction of groyne against the flow causes significant changes in flow pattern in channel. Those changes may result in scour phenomenon around groynes which may lead structure instability and changes in river morphology. Moreover, in series of groynes, spacing of groynes leads different types of recirculating flow patterns.Therefore, investigating the characteristics of flow pattern around groynes have been a great interest in river engineering. Numerous researchers like Sukhodolov et al. (2002), Hao Zhang et al.(2009), Beheshti (2010), Duan (2009), Naji(2010), Karami(2011) made a variety of experiments in order to determine the flow pattern around groynes. Most of these researchers studied effect of single groyne, while using series of groynes is more effective in protection of rivers. Besides experimental studies, variety of CFD models have been developed for computing flow pattern around hydraulic structures; like Fluent, Flow 3D, Nays 2D, Nays CUBE and SSIIM. In this study, Nays 2D numerical modelling has been used to investigate flow and recirculating pattern around a series of groynes and streamlines including components of velocities.

Flow pattern in groyne fields
Under conditions where the groynes are not submerged, the groyne fields are not really part of the wetted cross section of a river. Because of that, the flow pattern in the groyne-field is not directly the result of the discharge in the main channel. Reducing the main stream velocity has no effect on the flow pattern itself, whereas lowering the water level does (Uijttewaal et al.2001). Moreover, the flow pattern inside a groyne field may change with the change of its geometry, location along the river (inner curve, outer curve, or straight part), and/ or the groynes orientation( Przedwojski et al.1995). However, there is an indirect effect of the discharge on the flow pattern in the groyne field. Because of the flow that is diverted from the main channel into the groyne fields, water flows into the groyne field with low velocity through the downstream half of the interfacial section between the groyne field and the main channel. This water flows back to the main channel through a small width of, just downstream the upstream groyne of the groyne field ( Termes et al.1991). Flow separates on a groyne head and forms a secondary flow represented by a large scale vortex with a vertical axis of rotation called primary gyre. Deflection of the flow inside the groyne field by banks and upstream groynes leads to the development of a secondary gyre with an opposite direction of rotation to the primary gyre. Location, mutual interactions, and energy exchange between gyres are the factors that create a specific recirculation pattern, and, consequently assuming correspondence with sedimentation processes, they define deposition patterns.
Model Formulation
The CFD model selected for this study is the publically available software NAYS 2D (iRIC 2.0), which is an analytical solver for calculation of unsteady two-dimensional plane flow and riverbed deformation using boundary-fitted coordinates within general curvilinear coordinates. A numerical channel of length 8.0m and width 0.9m was created with grid size of 0.01m im stream wise and 0.03m in cross stream directions. Groynes or spur dikes of length 0.15 and width 0.01m were chosen in series. Groyne field with various aspect ratio (b/x) 0.7, 0.25, 0.17, 0.125 and 0.10, where b=length of spur dike, x=spacing of two dikes. Discharge of 0.0175 m3 /s was applied. For boundary conditions, water surface at downstream and velocity at upstream were considered as uniform flow. Relaxation coefficient for water surface calculation was considered as 0.8. For the finite-difference method, the CIP method was applied to the advection terms in equations of motion. For the turbulent field calculation, Constant eddy viscosity, Zero-equation model and k-G models were applied and compared. The model!s accuracy in predicting the velocity magnitudes is evaluated using statistical parameters- mean absolute error (MAE), mean square error(MSE), and root mean square error (RMSE). The comparison of results shows the importance of selecting an appropriate turbulence model in simulating flow field around a spur dike. From the comparison, k-I model is found superior over zero energy model and eddy viscosity model. So, k-I model is chosen as appropriate turbulence closure model.
Model!s Validation
The capability of CFD model Nays 2D to simulate the velocity field and recirculation pattern in groyne field was compared with experimental data of laboratory experiments by Sukhodolov et al. (2002). The numerical simulation was validated for aspect ratio (R=b/x=0.7) and R=0.25. For aspect ratio R=0.7, one gyre system occupies the whole area of the groyne field. The areas with lower-than-average velocity values are clearly seen in the central part of the gyre and near its corners. Velocities increase towards the margins of the gyre. For aspect ratio R=0.25, two gyre velocity fields were observed in the groyne field. In the downstream part of the groyne field a large gyre, covering two-thirds of the area is clearly visible. The left part(upstream) contains second gyre rotating much more slowly and in the direction opposed to the primary gyre. The simulated and observed velocity field pattern and gyre found satisfactorily agreed. Now, after validation, the model was used for further analysis of velocity field for various aspect ratios.

Results and Discussions
The calibrated model was applied to five different cases of un-submerged and impermeable groyne fields with aspect ratios R=0.70,0.25,0.17,0.125 & 0.10 and flow pattern was numerically simulated. For aspect ratio R=0.7 i.e x/b=1.5, Fig 1(a) only one lateral primary gyre was formed inside the groyne field. The circulation pattern in this case is distinguished by the main flow that is deflected outside the groyne field. The developed primary gyre prevents the main flow from penetrating the groyne field. Therefore, this pattern is desirable for navigation purposes as a continuous deep channel is maintained along the face of the groyne field. Simulated velocity pattern satisfactorily agrees with the observed velocity field Fig 1(b) for the same aspect ratio by Sukhodolov (2002). The spacing of the groyne was further increased maintaining aspect ratio R= 0.25 i. e x/b=4 Fig 2(a) and flow pattern inside the groyne field was simulated. In this case, in the downstream part of the groyne field, a primary gyre occupying almost two-third area was formed. In addition, deflection of the flow inside the groyne field by banks and upstream groynes leads to the development of a secondary gyre with an opposite direction of rotation to the primary gyre covering almost one-third part of the groyne field. Likewise in the first case, the main current is maintained deflected outside the groyne field. Simulated velocity pattern satisfactorily agrees with the observed velocity field Fig 2(b) for the same aspect ratio by Sukhodolov (2002). The spacing of the groyne was further increased maintaining aspect ratio R=0.17 i.e x/b=6. In this case the flow pattern was similar to the aspect ratio R=0.25. The spacing of the groynes was further increased maintaining aspect ratio R=0.125 i. e x/b=8. In this case, similar to the previous scenarios two longitudinal gyres but with different positions are formed. The main current is directed in to the groyne field (Fig 3) creating a much more stronger eddy near the upstream groyne and greater turbulence along the upstream face and at the groyne lower head. As the spacing between groynes increased maintaining aspect ratio R=0.10 i. e x/b=10 (Fig 4), still primary and secondary gyres are generated. The formed gyres deflect the main flow thus preventing to enter in to the groyne field in upstream part. However, in the downstream of the primary gyre and just upstream of the second groyne, the flow attacks the bank directly. The resultant velocity profiles at the deflected region y/b=3 were plotted and how the spacing of second groyne affect the result was analyzed. Spacing of groynes makes little change in upstream resultant velocity. However, in the deflected region, its effect is significant. Higher value of spacing of groyne leads higher average deviation in resultant velocity. For aspect ratio R=0.7, the average deviation estimated as 0.02%. In the case of aspect ratio R=0.25, this value was reached to 1.57%. Further increment of spacing i. e decreasing the aspect ratio R=0.17, average deviation was found 3.82%. For the aspect ratio R=0.125, that value was estimated as 4.16%.
Conclusions
Geometry of the groyne fields; width and length of the groyne field mainly cause the specific flow patterns including number and shape of eddies or gyres. Eddies developed inside the groyne field deflects the main flow preventing it entering into the dead zone. An aspect ratio close to unity gives rise to a single eddy. A smaller aspect ratio (higher spacing between groynes) gives room to two stationary eddies, a large one called primary eddy, in the downstream part of the groyne field, and a smaller secondary eddy emerges near the upstream groyne. The extreme long groyne field -case of length to width ratio of larger thaneight shows penetration of main flow into the groyne field. The two eddies remain in a relatively stable position, while the main flow zone starts to penetrate into groyne field further downstream. In all cases, there is an eddy detaches from the upstream groyne tip that travels along the main channel groyne field interface and eventually merges with the primary eddy. The simulated results indicate that the spacing of groynes or spur dikes from the controlling of bank erosion point of view should be limited within six times the length of groyne.

Fig 3 Computed velocity field for aspect ratio 0.125

Fig 4 Computed velocity field for aspect ratio 0.10

Fig 5 Resultant velocity profiles at y/b=3

References

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Kang, J.G; Yeo, H.K; Kim,S.J An experimental study on a characteristics of flow around groyne area by install conditions.Å www.SciRP.org/journal/eng(2012).
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Sukhodolov, A. Uijttewaal, W. S. J., and Engelhardt, C. On the correspondence between morphological and hydro dynamical patterns of groyne fields.Å Earth Surf. Processes Landforms, 27(3) (2002).
Uijttewall, W.S.J; Lehman,D; VanMazijk,A. Exchange process between a river and its groyne fields-model experiments.Å Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 127(11) (2001).
Uijttewall, W.S.J Groyne field velocity patterns determined with particle tracking
velocimetryÅ.28th IAHR congress, Graz, Austria (1999).
Yossef, Mohamed Flow details near groynes: Experimental investigations.Å Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 137 (2011).

CFD 사용: 유압 구조 및 농업에서의 응용

USO DE CFD COMO HERRAMIENTA PARA LA MODELACIÓN Y PREDICCIÓN NUMÉRICA DE LOS FLUIDOS: APLICACIONES EN ESTRUCTURAS HIDRÁULICAS Y AGRICULTURA

Cruz Ernesto Aguilar-Rodriguez^1*; Candido Ramirez-Ruiz²; Erick Dante Mattos Villarroel³

¹Tecnológico Nacional de México/ITS de Los Reyes. Carretera Los Reyes-Jacona, Col. Libertad. 60300. Los Reyes de Salgado, Michoacán. México.

ernesto.ar@losreyes.tecnm.mx – 3541013901 (*Autor de correspondencia)

²Instituto de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnología, UNAM. Cto. Exterior S/N, C.U., Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México. México. ³Riego y Drenaje. Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua. Paseo Cuauhnáhuac 8532, Progreso, Jiutepec, Morelos, C.P. 62550. México.

Abstract

공학에서 유체의 거동은 설명하기에 광범위하고 복잡한 과정이며, 유체역학은 유체의 거동을 지배하는 방정식을 통해 유체 역학 현상을 분석할 수 있는 과학 분야이지만 이러한 방정식에는 전체 솔루션이 없습니다. . 전산유체역학(Computational Fluid Dynamics, 이하 CFD)은 수치적 기법을 통해 방정식의 해에 접근할 수 있는 도구로, 신뢰할 수 있는 계산 모델을 얻기 위해서는 물리적 모델의 실험 데이터로 평가해야 합니다. 수력구조물에서 선형 및 미로형 여수로에서 시뮬레이션을 수행하고 배출 시트의 거동과 현재의 폭기 조건을 분석했습니다. 침강기에서 유체의 특성화를 수행하고 필요한 특성에 따라 사체적, 피스톤 또는 혼합의 분수를 수정하는 것이 가능합니다. 농업에서는 온실 환경을 특성화하고 환경에 대한 재료의 디자인, 방향 및 유형 간의 관계를 찾는 데 사용할 수 있습니다. 발견된 가장 중요한 결과 중 온실의 길이와 설계가 환기율에 미칠 수 있는 영향으로 온실의 길이는 높이의 6배 미만인 것이 권장됩니다.

키워드: Computational Fluid Dynamics, 온실,

Spillway, Settler 기사: COMEII-21048 소개

CFD는 유체 운동 문제에 대한 수치적 솔루션을 얻어 수리학적 현상을 더 잘 이해할 수 있게 함으로써 공간 시각화를 가능하게 하는 수치 도구입니다. 예를 들어, 수력 공학에서 벤츄리(Xu, Gao, Zhao, & Wang, 2014) 워터 펌핑(ȘCHEAUA, 2016) 또는 개방 채널 적용( Wu et 알., 2000).

문헌 검토는 실험 연구에서 검증된 배수로의 흐름 거동에 대한 수리학적 분석을 위한 CFD 도구의 효율성을 보여줍니다. 이 검토는 둑의 흐름 거동에 대한 수리학적 분석을 위한 CFD의 효율성을 보여줍니다. Crookston et al. (2012)는 미로 여수로에 대해 Flow 3D로 테스트를 수행했으며, 배출 계수의 결과는 3%에서 7%까지 다양한 오류로 실험적으로 얻은 결과로 허용 가능했으며 연구 결과 측면에 저압 영역이 있음을 발견했습니다. 익사 방식으로 작업할 때 위어의 벽. Zuhair(2013)는 수치 모델링 결과를 Mandali weir 원형의 실험 데이터와 비교했습니다.

최근 연구에서는 다양한 난류 모델을 사용하여 CFD를 적용할 가능성이 있음을 보여주었습니다. 그리고 일부만이 음용수 처리를 위한 침적자의 사례 연구를 제시했으며, 다른 설계 변수 중에서 기하학적인 대안, 수온 변화 등을 제안했습니다. 따라서 기술 개발로 인해 설계 엔지니어가 유체 거동을 분석하는 데 CFD 도구를 점점 더 많이 사용하게 되었습니다.

보호 농업에서 CFD는 온실 환경을 모델링하고 보조 냉방 또는 난방 시스템을 통해 온실의 미기후 관리를 위한 전략을 제안하는 데 사용되는 기술이었습니다(Aguilar Rodríguez et al., 2020).

2D 및 3D CFD 모델을 사용한 본격적인 온실 시뮬레이션은 태양 복사 모델과 현열 및 잠열 교환 하위 모델의 통합을 통해 온실의 미기후 분포를 연구하는 데 사용되었습니다(Majdoubi, Boulard, Fatnassi, & Bouirden, 2009). 마찬가지로 이 모델을 사용하여 온실 설계(Sethi, 2009), 덮개 재료(Baxevanou, Fidaros, Bartzanas, & Kittas, 2018), 시간, 연중 계절( Tong, Christopher, Li, & Wang, 2013), 환기 유형 및 구성(Bartzanas, Boulard, & Kittas, 2004).

CFD 거래 프로그램은 사용자 친화적인 플랫폼으로 설계되어 결과를 쉽게 관리하고 이해할 수 있습니다.

…

Figura 1. Distribución de presiones y velocidades en un vertedor de pared delgada.

Figura 2. Perfiles de velocidad y presión en la cresta vertedora.

Figura 3. Condiciones de aireación en vertedor tipo laberinto. (A)lámina adherida a la pared del
vertedor, (B) aireado, (C) parcialmente aireado, (D) ahogado.

Figura 4. Realización de prueba de riego.

Figura 5. Efecto de la posición y dirección de los calefactores en un invernadero a 2 m del suelo.

Figura 6. Indicadores ambientales para medir el confort ambiental de los cultivos.

Figura 7. Líneas de corriente dentro del sedimentador experimental en estado estacionario (Ramirez-Ruiz, 2019).

Referencias Bibliográficas

Aguilar-Rodriguez, C.; Flores-Velazquez, J.; Ojeda-Bustamante, W.; Rojano, F.; Iñiguez-
Covarrubias, M. 2020. Valuation of the energyperformance of a greenhouse with

an electric heater using numerical simulations. Processes, 8, 600.

Aguilar-Rodriguez, C.; Flores-Velazquez, J.; Rojano, F.; Ojeda-Bustamante, W.; Iñiguez-
Covarrubias, M. 2020. Estimación del ciclo de cultivo de tomate (Solanum

lycopersicum L.) en invernadero, con base en grados días calor (GDC) simulados
con CFD. Tecnología y ciencias del agua, ISSN 2007-2422, 11(4), 27-57.
Al-Sammarraee, M., y Chan, A. (2009). Large-eddy simulations of particle sedimentation
in a longitudinal sedimentation basin of a water treatment plant. Part 2: The effects
of baffles. Chemical Engineering Journal, 152(2-3), 315-321.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.01.052.
Bartzanas, T.; Boulard, T.; Kittas, C. 2004. Effect of vent arrangement on windward
ventilation of a tunnel greenhouse. Biosystems Engineering, 88(4).
Baxevanou, C.; Fidaros, D.; Bartzanas, T.; Kittas, C. 2018. Yearly numerical evaluation of
greenhouse cover materials. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 149, 54–

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2017.12.006.
Crookston, B. M., & Tullis, B. P. 2012. Labyrinth weirs: Nappe interference and local
submergence. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 138(8), 757-765.
Fernández, J. M. 2012. Técnicas numéricas en Ingeniería de Fluidos: Introducción a la
Dinámica de Fluidos Computacional (CFD) por el Método de Volumen Finito;
Reverté, Barcelona, pp. 98-294.
Goula, A., Kostoglou, M., Karapantsios, T., y Zouboulis, A. (2008). The effect of influent
temperature variations in a sedimentation tank for potable water treatment— A
computational fluid dynamics study. Water Research, 42(13), 3405-3414.
doi://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2008.05.002.
Majdoubi, H.; Boulard, T.; Fatnassi, H.; Bouirden, L. 2009. Airflow and microclimate
patterns in a one-hectare Canary type greenhouse: an experimental and CFD
assisted study. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 149(6-7), 1050-1062.
Ramirez-Ruiz Candido (2019). Estudio hidrodinámico de sedimentadores de alta tasa en
plantas potabilizadoras utilizando dinámica de fluidos computacional (CFD).
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Tesis de maestría.
Sánchez, J. M. C., & Elsitdié, L. G. C. 2011. Consideraciones del mallado aplicadas al
cálculo de flujos bifásicos con las técnicas de dinámica de fluidos computacional.
J. Introd. Inv. UPCT., 4, 33-35.
Sethi, V.P. 2009. On the selection of shape and orientation of a greenhouse: Thermal
modeling and experimental validation, Sol. Energy, 83, 21–38.
ȘCHEAUA, F. 2016. AGRICULTURAL FIELD IRRIGATION SOLUTION BASED ON
VENTURI NOZZLE γ 2 g γ 2 g. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS, 2(1), 31–35.

Tong, G.; Christopher, D.; Li, T.; Wang, T. 2013. Passive solar energy utilization: a review
of cross-section building parameter selection for Chinese solar greenhouses.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 26, 540-548.

Xu, Y., Gao, L., Zhao, Y., & Wang, H. 2014. Wet gas overreading characteristics of a long-
throat Venturi at high pressure based on CFD. Flow Measurement and

Instrumentation, 40, 247–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.flowmeasinst.2014.09.004
Wu, W., Rodi, W y Wenka, T. 2000. 3D numerical modeling of flow and sediment transport
in open channels. ASCE Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. Vol 126 Num 1.
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En:International Journal of Structural and Civil Engineering Research. Vol 2, No 3;
13p

원문 보기

What’s New – FLOW-3D 2022R1

FLOW-3D 제품의 새로운 2022R1 버전은 Flow Science가 FLOW-3D , FLOW-3D CAST 및 FLOW-3D HYDRO 에 대해 동일한 버전명을 채택 했음을 의미합니다. 2022R1은 FLOW-3D 제품을 위한 통합 코드 베이스로의 전환을 나타내며, 이를 통해 사용자는 최신 버전 개발이 준비되는 즉시 더 빠른 릴리스 버전을 만나실 수 있습니다.

2022R1 릴리스는 상세한 cutcell 표현이라고 하는 FAVOR™ 방법의 확장, 테마 솔버 기본값이 있는 시뮬레이션 템플릿 도입, 이동하는 액적/기포 소스, 새로운 축 펌프 모델, 능동 시뮬레이션 제어 기능에 대한 확장, 사용자는 두 개의 독립 변수를 기반으로 복잡한 속성 종속성을 지정하고 VOF-to-particle 개발과 같은 추가 수치 기능을 지정하여 분해되는 유체 영역의 질량 보존을 개선할 수 있습니다. 간소화된 GUI 개선 사항에는 재설계된 물리 대화 상자, 새로운 초기 조건 위젯, 더 쉽고 빠르고 오류 없는 시뮬레이션 설정을 위해 재설계된 출력 및 지오메트리 위젯이 포함됩니다.

상세한 Cutcell 표현 – FAVOR ™ 의 확장

FAVOR™ 방법은 일반 데카르트 그리드에서 면적 및 부피 분율을 사용하여 솔리드 형상을 구현하는 방법입니다. 이를 통해 FLOW-3D 는 구조화되지 않은 body-fitted mesh에 의존하지 않고 솔리드의 복잡한 형상과 주변의 유체 흐름을 효율적으로 시뮬레이션할 수 있습니다. 상당한 계산상의 이점에도 불구하고 FAVOR™ 방법의 한 가지 문제는 고체 표면을 따라 벽 전단 응력을 계산할 때는 문제가 발생할 수도 있었습니다. 그러나, 상세한 cutcell 표현이라고 하는 FAVOR™의 확장은 벽 전단 응력 계산을 크게 개선하여 솔리드 표면 근처의 유체 유동 해석에서 상당한 개선을 가져옵니다.

detailed cutcell 표현 의 검증뿐만 아니라 advanced numerics 에 대해 자세히 알아보십시오 .

Tabular Properties

점도 및 표면 장력과 같은 재료 속성은 온도, 밀도, 변형률 또는 오염 물질 농도와 같은 것을 나타내는 사용자 정의 스칼라 양과 같은 흐름 조건에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다. 이러한 속성을 기능적 형태에 맞추려면 특히 속성이 둘 이상의 독립 변수에 종속되는 경우 복잡한 곡선 맞춤이 필요할 수 있습니다. FLOW-3D 의 새로운 Tabular Properties 기능은 사용자가 최대 2개의 독립 변수를 사용하여 테이블 형식으로 유체 속성을 정의할 수 있습니다. 예를 들어, 표면 장력은 오염 물질 농도 및 온도에 대한 복잡한 비선형 종속성을 설명하기 위해 실험 데이터에서 표로 만들 수 있으며, 점도는 변형률 속도 및 온도에 대한 종속성을 나타내기 위해 실험 데이터에서 표로 만들 수 있습니다. 사용자는 표 속성 대화 상자에서 단일 변수 또는 두 개의 변수 종속성을 입력할 수 있습니다.

점도는 고체 함량(밀도)과 변형률의 함수로 정의됩니다. 이 예에서 조밀한 유체 영역은 시간이 0일 때 조밀한 침전된 유체 영역과 위쪽에 맑은 물이 있는 정지된 풀로 미끄러져 내려갑니다.

이 대화 상자는 표 속성 기능을 사용하여 변형률 및 온도의 함수로 점도를 정의하는 방법을 보여줍니다. 세 가지 다른 온도에 대한 변형률의 함수로서의 점도에 대한 값이 대화 상자의 오른쪽에 표시되고 그래프로 표시됩니다.

Expanded Active Simulation Control

능동 시뮬레이션 제어(ASC) 는 Probe로 지정한 부분의 흐름 정보를 기반으로 시뮬레이션을 제어하는 데 매우 유용합니다. 이번 릴리스에서 ASC는 일반 이력 데이터, 플럭스 표면 및 sampling volumes의 흐름 정보를 기반으로 추가 제어를 허용하도록 확장되었습니다.

포인트 프로브에 비해 플럭스 표면 및 샘플링 볼륨의 장점 중 하나는 포인트 기반이 아닌 표면 또는 볼륨에 대해 평균화된 정보를 제공할 수 있다는 것입니다. 어떤 상황에서는 표면 기반 및 볼륨 기반 정보가 시뮬레이션에서 관심 있는 동작을 더 잘 나타낼 수 있습니다.

이 새로운 기능을 통해 사용자는 다음을 수행할 수 있습니다.

제어 볼륨의 온도가 임계값을 초과하거나 아래로 떨어지면 시뮬레이션을 종료합니다.
샘플링 볼륨의 난류 에너지를 기반으로 노즐에서 충전 속도를 제어합니다.
자속 평면의 평균 속도를 기반으로 출력 주파수를 제어합니다.
샘플링 볼륨의 채우기 비율이 사용자가 지정한 값에 도달하면 시뮬레이션을 종료합니다.

이 예에서 극저온 탱크 공급 파이프의 펌프(진한 회색 직사각형)는 일정한 유속으로 추진제 탱크에서 액체 산소를 끌어옵니다. 액체 산소가 배출됨에 따라 얼리지의 압력이 지정된 값 아래로 떨어질 때 활성 시뮬레이션 제어에 의해 질량/운동량 소스(상단의 회색 막대)가 트리거됩니다. 얼리지 압력이 지정된 값 이상으로 상승하면 가압이 꺼집니다.

VOF to Particles

FLOW-3D 에서 복잡한 자유표면을 추적하는 VOF 방법의 정확성과 견고성은 유체 입자와 결합하여 향상되었습니다. VOF 입자라고 하는 새로운 입자 종류는 VOF 기능 대신 사용되어, 계산 영역에서 작은 유체 인대와 액적을 추적하여 유체 부피와 운동량을 더 잘 보존할 수 있습니다. 중력 제어 프로세스에서 더 높은 시간 단계 크기도 예상할 수 있습니다. VOF 유체는 특정 조건이 충족되면 특정 시간과 위치에서 자동으로 VOF 입자로 변환됩니다. 그런 다음 입자 모션은 Lagrangian 입자 모델을 사용하여 계산되고 입자는 유체에 다시 들어갈 때 VOF 표현으로 다시 변환됩니다.

Axial Pump Model

FLOW-3D의 새로운 Axial Pump Model을 통해 사용자는 시뮬레이션에서 Axial Pump의 실제 효과를 구현할 수 있습니다. 펌프 동작과 관련하여 두 가지 옵션이 있습니다. 첫 번째 옵션은 유체가 지정된 속도로 이동하도록 펌프를 통한 체적 유량 또는 유속을 규정하는 것입니다. 이 옵션은 펌프에 작동 유량이 제공될 때 적합합니다. 두 번째 옵션은 펌프 성능 곡선을 기반으로 펌프 작동에 대한 보다 완전한 정의를 제공합니다. 이 경우 사용자는 펌프 성능 곡선의 선형 근사치를 정의하여 펌프를 통과하는 유량이 펌프 전체의 압력 강하에 따라 달라지도록 할 수 있습니다. 이 구성에서 펌프의 일반적인 동작은 다음과 같이 표시됩니다.

Droplet/Bubble Source Model | 액적/기포 소스 모델

FLOW-3D 는 처음 개발된 이후 로 표면 장력 작용에 따라 진화하는 유체 모양을 시뮬레이션하기 위해 노즐 및 기타 오리피스 모양에서 분사되는 액적을 모델링하는 데 사용되었습니다. 그러나 기판에 대한 액적의 영향만 관심이 있기 때문에 노즐을 떠날 때 액적의 모양을 시뮬레이션할 필요가 없는 경우가 있습니다. 또한, 유체에서 기포의 이동을 모델링하는 것은 흥미로울 수 있지만 기포의 시작은 아닙니다. 새로운 액적/기포 소스 모델은 이와 같은 경우에 유용합니다.

이 예에서 액적 소스는 원형 패턴으로 이동하면서 액적을 10m/s의 속도로 다공성 매체로 아래쪽으로 토출하여 링 모양 디자인을 만듭니다.

Simulation Templates

새로운 시뮬레이션 템플릿은 자유 표면이 있는 하나의 유체에 대해 비압축성 흐름 또는 2개의 유체 압축성 시뮬레이션과 같은 주어진 모델링 프레임워크를 기반으로 중요한 매개변수를 미리 로드합니다. 새로운 시뮬레이션이 생성되면 FLOW-3D 에서 가장 일반적으로 모델링된 사례를 다루는 6개의 템플릿이 포함된 대화 상자가 사용자에게 표시됩니다 . ‘없음’ 옵션을 사용하면 고급 사용자가 특수 수치 설정을 적용할 수 있도록 빈 슬레이트로 시작할 수 있습니다. 템플릿을 사용하면 모델 설정 프로세스를 신속하게 처리하고 사용자가 실수를 하거나 매개변수 정의를 잊어버리는 것을 방지할 수 있습니다.

추가 솔버 기능

추가 솔버 기능에는 비뉴턴 유체에 대한 Herschel-Bulkley 모델 및 분해되기 쉬운 유체 영역에 대한 질량 보존을 개선하기 위한 기체-공동 변환, 다중 이벤트 동작 및 이벤트 옵션 지원을 포함한 확장된 질량-운동량 소스 프로브 이벤트가 포함됩니다. 동반된 공기의 부피 분율과 용질 농도에 대한 것입니다.

GUI 개선

WSIWYN 설계 접근 방식을 사용한 간소화된 GUI 개선에는 재설계된 물리 및 초기 조건 대화 상자, 더 쉽고 빠르며 오류 없는 시뮬레이션 설정을 위해 재설계된 출력 및 지오메트리 위젯이 포함됩니다.

초기 조건 위젯

초기 조건 위젯은 초기 유체 및 기체 영역 설정을 개선하여 더 쉽고 빠르게 만듭니다. 새로운 디자인에서는 전역, 영역 및 포인터 개체가 별도의 탭에 배치되어 설정을 훨씬 더 명확하게 볼 수 있습니다.

출력 위젯

재설계된 출력 위젯을 통해 사용자는 시뮬레이션 결과 파일에서 어떤 출력을 사용할 수 있는지 정확히 확인할 수 있으며, 하나의 간결한 보기에서 다시 시작 및 선택한 데이터 출력을 명확히 알 수 있습니다.

대화형 지오메트리 생성 및 편집

대화형 지오메트리 생성 및 편집 기능이 그 어느 때보다 향상되었으며 이제 다음이 포함됩니다.

회전, 이동 및 크기 조정을 포함한 새로운 대화형 도구 선택이 가능합니다.
작업을 클릭하고 수정할 지오메트리를 선택하여 회전, 이동 또는 크기 조정 모드를 시작합니다.
위쪽 화살표 아이콘을 클릭하거나 ESC 키를 누르면 일반 선택 모드로 돌아갑니다.

Geometry Widget

기하학 위젯은 이제 다양한 속성 그룹을 결합하고 관련 항목을 함께 배치하는 WYSIWYN 디자인 접근 방식을 사용하여 더 쉽고 빠르게 탐색할 수 있습니다.

Easier Access to Help

이제 물리 대화 상자 내에서 클릭 한 번으로 관련 문서, 자습서 및 도움말 다이어그램에 액세스할 수 있습니다.

간소화된 물리 대화 상자

사용자가 시뮬레이션을 더 빠르게 설정하고 설정 오류를 줄일 수 있도록 많은 물리 대화 상자가 간소화되었습니다.

거품 및 상 변화 — *Bubble and phase change model*

Fig. 4. Meshed quarter aluminum model with HAZ regions and support steel plates.

Benchmark study on slamming response of flat-stiffened plates considering fluid-structure interaction

유체-구조 상호작용을 고려한 평판 보강판의 슬래밍 응답에 대한 벤치마크 연구

Dac DungTruong^abBeom-SeonJang^aCarl-ErikJanson^cJonas W.Ringsberg^cYasuhiraYamada^dKotaTakamoto^fYasumiKawamura^eHan-BaekJu^a
^aResearch Institute of Marine Systems Engineering, Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
^bDepartment of Engineering Mechanics, Nha Trang University, Nha Trang, Viet Nam
^cDivision of Marine Technology, Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
^dNational Maritime Research Institute, National Institute of Maritime, Port and Aviation Technology, Tokyo, Japan
^eDepartment of Systems Design for Ocean-Space, Yokohama National University, Kanagawa, Japan
^fDepartment of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT

이 논문은 해양구조물의 평보강판의 슬래밍 반응에 대한 벤치마크 연구를 제시합니다. 목표는 유체-구조 상호작용(FSI) 시뮬레이션 방법론, 모델링 기술 및 슬래밍 압력 예측에 대한 기존 연구원의 경험을 비교하는 것이었습니다.

수치 FSI 시뮬레이션을 위해 가장 일반적인 상용 소프트웨어 패키지를 사용하는 3개의 연구 그룹(예: LS-Dyna ALE, LS-Dyna ICFD, ANSYS CFX 및 Star-CCM+/ABAQUS)이 이 연구에 참여했습니다.

공개 문헌에서 입수할 수 있는 경량 선박과 같은 바닥 구조의 평평한 강화 알루미늄 판에 대한 습식 낙하 시험 데이터는 FSI 모델링의 검증에 활용되었습니다. 형상 모델 및 재료 속성을 포함한 실험 조건의 요약은 시뮬레이션 전에 참가자에게 배포되었습니다.

충돌 속도와 강판의 강성이 슬래밍 응답에 미치는 영향을 조사하기 위해 해양 설비에 사용되는 실제 치수를 갖는 평판 보강 강판에 대한 매개변수 연구를 수행했습니다. 보강판에 작용하는 전체 수직력에 대한 FE 시뮬레이션 결과와 이러한 힘에 대한 구조적 반응을 참가자로부터 획득하여 분석 및 비교하였다.

앞서 언급한 상용 FSI 소프트웨어 패키지를 사용하여 슬래밍 부하에 대한 신뢰할 수 있고 정확한 예측을 평가했습니다. 또한 FSI 시뮬레이션에서 관찰된 동일한 영구 처짐을 초래하는 등가 정적 슬래밍 압력을 보고하고 분류 표준 DNV에서 제안한 해석 모델 및 슬래밍 압력 계산을 위한 기존 실험 데이터와 비교했습니다.

연구 결과는 등가 하중 모델이 물 충돌 속도와 플레이트 강성에 의존한다는 것을 보여주었습니다. 즉, 등가정압계수는 충돌속도가 증가함에 따라 감소하고 충돌구조가 더 단단해지면 증가한다.

This paper presents a benchmark study on the slamming responses of offshore structures’ flat-stiffened plates. The objective was to compare the fluid-structure interaction (FSI) simulation methodologies, modeling techniques, and established researchers’ experiences in predicting slamming pressure. Three research groups employing the most common commercial software packages for numerical FSI simulations (i.e. LS-Dyna ALE, LS-Dyna ICFD, ANSYS CFX, and Star-CCM+/ABAQUS) participated in this study. Wet drop test data on flat-stiffened aluminum plates of light-ship-like bottom structures available in the open literature was utilized for validation of the FSI modeling. A summary of the experimental conditions including the geometry model and material properties, was distributed to the participants prior to their simulations. A parametric study on flat-stiffened steel plates having actual scantlings used in marine installations was performed to investigate the effect of impact velocity and plate rigidity on slamming response. The FE simulation results for the total vertical forces acting on the stiffened plates and their structural responses to those forces, as obtained from the participants, were analyzed and compared. The reliable and accurate predictions of slamming loads using the aforementioned commercial FSI software packages were evaluated. Additionally, equivalent static slamming pressures resulting in the same permanent deflections, as observed from the FSI simulations, were reported and compared with analytical models proposed by the Classification Standards DNV and existing experimental data for calculation of the slamming pressure. The study results showed that the equivalent load model depends on the water impact velocity and plate rigidity; that is, the equivalent static pressure coefficient decreases with an increase in impact velocity, and increases when impacting structures become stiffer.

Fig. 6. (a) Boundary conditions of water hitting case and (b) water jets at end of the simulation.

Fig. 7. Comparison of prediction and test results for deflection time history of (a) D1 and (b) D2 for Vi = 2.3 m/s.

Fig. 8. Comparison of prediction and test results for maximum deflection with different impact velocities.

Fig. 16. Boundary conditions applied to present FSI simulations (Sym. denotes symmetric, and Cons. denotes constrained)

Fig. 24. Distribution of deflections at moment of maximum deflection in: (a) LS-Dyna ALE, (b) Star-CCM+/ABAQUS, (c) ANSYS CFD, and (d) LSDyna ICFD (unit: m).

Keywords

Benchmark studyEquivalent static pressureFlat-stiffened plateFluid-structure interactionPermanent deflectionSlamming pressure coefficient

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Fig. 8. Pressure distribution during the infiltration of preform with the 50 ¯m particles and 20 % starches: (a) 25 % filled, (b) 57 % filled, and (c) 99 % filled.

Experimental study and numerical simulation of infiltration of AlSi12 alloys into Si porous preforms with micro-computed tomography inspection characteristics

마이크로 컴퓨터 단층 촬영 검사 특성을 가진 Si 다공성 프리폼에 AlSi12 합금의 침투에 대한 실험적 연구 및 수치 시뮬레이션

Ruizhe LIU¹ and Haidong ZHAO¹,³
¹National Engineering Research Center of Near-Net-Shape Forming for Metallic Materials, South China University of Technology,
Guangzhou 510640, China

Abstract

전분 함량(10, 20 및 30%)과 입자 크기(20, 50 및 90 m)가 다른 실리콘 입자 예비 성형체는 압축 성형 및 열처리를 통해 제작되었습니다. 프리폼의 기공 특성은 고해상도(³1 m) 3차원(3D) X선 마이크로 컴퓨터 단층 촬영(V-CT)으로 검사되었습니다. AlSi12 합금의 프리폼으로의 침투는 진공 보조 압력 침투 장치에서 800 °C 및 400 kPa의 조건에서 서로 다른 압력 적용 시간(3, 8 및 15초)으로 수행되었습니다. 고해상도(³500 nm) 수직 주사 백색광 간섭 프로파일로미터를 사용하여 복합 재료의 전면을 감지했습니다. Navier-Stokes 방정식을 기반으로 하는 ¯-CT 검사에서 실제 기공 형상을 고려하여 침투를 미시적으로 시뮬레이션했습니다. 그 결과 전분 함량과 입자크기가 증가할수록 복합재료의 표면적이 증가하는 것으로 나타났다. 전분 함량과 비교하여 입자 크기는 전면 표면적에 더 많은 영향을 미칩니다. 시뮬레이션에서 침투가 진행됨에 따라 액체 AlSi12의 압력이 감소했습니다. 복합재의 잔류 기공은 침투와 함께 증가했습니다. 실험 및 시뮬레이션 결과에 따르면 침투 방향을 따라 더 큰 압력 강하가 복합 재료의 더 많은 잔류 기공을 유도합니다.

Silicon particle preforms with different starch contents (10, 20 and 30%) and particle sizes (20, 50 and 90 ¯m) were fabricated by compression mold forming and heat treatment. The pore characteristics of preforms were inspected with a high-resolution (³1 ¯m) three-dimensional (3D) X-ray micro-computed tomography (¯-CT). The infiltration of AlSi12 alloys into the preforms were carried out under the condition of 800 °C and 400 kPa with different pressure-applied times (3, 8 and 15 s) in a vacuum-assisted pressure infiltration apparatus. A highresolution (³500 nm) vertical scanning white light interfering profilometer was used to detect the front surfaces of composites. The infiltration was simulated at micro-scale by considering the actual pore geometry from the ¯- CT inspection based on the Navier-Stokes equation. The results demonstrated that as the starch content and particle size increased, the front surface area of composite increased. Compared with the starch content, the particle size has more influence on the front surface area. In the simulation, as the infiltration progressed, the pressure of liquid AlSi12 decreased. The residual pores of composites increased with infiltration. According to the experiment and simulation results, a larger pressure drop along the infiltration direction leads to more residual pores of composites.

Fig. 1. Size distributions of Si particles.

Fig. 2. Schematic of different locations of composites.

Fig. 3. Three-dimensional geometry with the reconstruction technology, enmeshment and infiltration parameters of Si preforms: (a) geometry, and (b) meshes and flow direction.

Fig. 4. Number-based frequencies of effective pore radius and throat radius: (a) effective pore radius of preforms with the 50 ¯m particles, (b) effective throat radius of preforms with the 50 ¯m particles, (c) effective pore radius of preforms with the 20 % starches, and (d) effective throat radius of preforms with the 20 % starches.

Fig. 5. 3D topological morphologies of front surfaces of composites: (a) 50 ¯m-10 %, (b) 50 ¯m-20 %, (c) 50 ¯m-30 %, (d) 20 ¯m-20 %, and (e) 90 ¯m-20 %.

Fig. 9. Pressure distributions of liquid AlSi12 during the infiltration of preforms: (a) different fill fractions, (b) different starch contents, and (c) different particle sizes.

Fig. 10. Metallographs of composites: (a) different locations of composite with the 20 ¯m particles and 20 % starches, and (b) different locations of composite with the 90 ¯m particles and 20 % starches.

Fig. 11. Area fractions of residual pores of composites: (a) 50 ¯m (different starch contents), and (b) 20 % (different particle sizes).

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Maryam Bagheri; Seyed M. Ali Zomorodian; Masih Zolghadr; H. Md. Azamathulla; C. Venkata Siva Rama Prasad

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions.

Experimental and numerical study of flow at a 90 degree lateral turnout with enhanced roughness coefficient and invert level changes

조도 계수 및 역전 수준 변화가 개선된 90도 측면 분출구에서의 유동에 대한 실험적 및 수치적 연구

Abstract

측면 분기기(흡입구)의 상류 측에서 흐름 분리는 분기기 입구에서 와류를 일으키는 중요한 문제입니다. 이는 흐름의 유효 폭, 출력 용량 및 효율성을 감소시킵니다. 따라서 분리지대의 크기를 파악하고 크기를 줄이기 위한 방안을 제시하는 것이 필수적이다. 본 연구에서는 분리 구역의 치수를 줄이기 위한 방법으로 7가지 유형의 거칠기 요소를 분기구 입구에 설치하고 4가지 다른 배출(총 84번의 실험을 수행)과 함께 3개의 서로 다른 베드 반전 레벨을 조사했습니다. 또한 3D CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) 모델을 사용하여 분리 영역의 흐름 패턴과 치수를 평가했습니다. 결과는 거칠기 계수를 향상시키면 분리 영역 치수를 최대 38%까지 줄일 수 있는 반면, 드롭 구현 효과는 사용된 거칠기 계수를 기반으로 이 영역을 다르게 축소할 수 있음을 보여주었습니다. 두 가지 방법을 결합하면 분리 영역 치수를 최대 63%까지 줄일 수 있습니다.

Flow separation at the upstream side of lateral turnouts (intakes) is a critical issue causing eddy currents at the turnout entrance. It reduces the effective width of flow, turnout capacity and efficiency. Therefore, it is essential to identify the dimensions of the separation zone and propose remedies to reduce its dimensions. Installation of 7 types of roughening elements at the turnout entrance and 3 different bed invert levels, with 4 different discharges (making a total of 84 experiments) were examined in this study as a method to reduce the dimensions of the separation zone. Additionally, a 3-D Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model was utilized to evaluate the flow pattern and dimensions of the separation zone. Results showed that enhancing the roughness coefficient can reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 38% while the drop implementation effect can scale down this area differently based on the roughness coefficient used. Combining both methods can reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 63%.

HIGHLIGHTS

discharge ratio, flow separation zone, intake, three dimensional simulation

Flow separation at the upstream side of lateral turnouts (intakes) is a critical issue causing eddy currents at the turnout entrance.
Installation of 7 types of roughening elements at the turnout entrance and 3 different bed level inverts were investigated.
Additionally, a 3-D Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model was utilized to evaluate the flow.
Combining both methods can reduce the separation zone dimensions by up to 63%.

Experimental and numerical study of flow at a 90 degree lateral turnout with enhanced roughness coefficient and invert level changes

Keywords

INTRODUCTION

Turnouts or intakes are amongst the oldest and most widely used hydraulic structures in irrigation networks. Turnouts are also used in water distribution, transmission networks, power generation facilities, and waste water treatment plants etc. The flows that enter a turnout have a strong momentum in the direction of the main waterway and that is why flow separation occurs inside the turnout. The horizontal vortex formed in the separation area is a suitable place for accumulation and deposition of sediments. The separation zone is a vulnerable area for sedimentation and for reduction of effective flow due to a contracted flow region in the lateral channel. Sedimentaion in the entrance of the intake can gradually be transfered into the lateral channel and decrease the capacity of the higher order channels over time (Jalili et al. 2011). On the other hand, the existence of coarse-grained materials causes erosion and destruction of the waterway side walls and bottom. In addition, sedimentation creates conditions for vegetation to take root and damage the waterway cover, which causes water to leak from its perimeter. Therefore, it is important to investigate the pattern of the flow separation area in turnouts and provide solutions to reduce the dimensions of this area.

The three-dimensional flow structure at turnouts is quite complex. In an experimental study by Neary & Odgaard (1993) in a 90-degree water turnout it was found that the secondary currents and separation zone varies from the bed to the water surface. They also found that at a 90-degree water turnout, the bed roughness and discharge ratio play a critical role in flow structure. They asserted that an explanation of sediment behavior at a diversion entrance requires a comprehensive understanding of 3D flow patterns around the lateral-channel entrance. In addition, they suggested that there is a strong similarity between flow in a channel bend and a diversion channel, and that this similarity can rationalize the use of bend flow models for estimation of 3D flow structures in diversion channels.

Some of the distinctive characteristics of dividing flow in a turnout include a zone of separation immediately near the entrance of the lateral turnout (separation zone), a contracted flow region in the branch channel (contracted flow), and a stagnation point near the downstream corner of the junction (stagnation zone). In the region downstream of the junction, along the continuous far wall, separation due to flow expansion may occur (Ramamurthy et al. 2007), that is, a separation zone. This can both reduce the turnout efficiency and the effective width of flow while increasing the sediment deposition in the turnout entrance (Jalili et al. 2011). Installation of submerged vanes in the turnout entrance is a method which is already applied to reduce the size of flow separation zones. The separation zone draws sediments and floating materials into themselves. This reduces effective cross-section area and reduces transmission capacity. These results have also been obtained in past studies, including by Ramamurthy et al. (2007) and in Jalili et al. (2011). Submerged vanes (Iowa vanes) are designed in order to modify the near-bed flow pattern and bed-sediment motion in the transverse direction of the river. The vanes are installed vertically on the channel bed, at an angle of attack which is usually oriented at 10–25 degrees to the local primary flow direction. Vane height is typically 0.2–0.5 times the local water depth during design flow conditions and vane length is 2–3 times its height (Odgaard & Wang 1991). They are vortex-generating devices that generate secondary circulation, thereby redistributing sediment within the channel cross section. Several factors affect the flow separation zone such as the ratio of lateral turnout discharge to main channel discharge, angle of lateral channel with respect to the main channel flow direction and size of applied submerged vanes. Nakato et al. (1990) found that sediment management using submerged vanes in the turnout entrance to Station 3 of the Council Bluffs plant, located on the Missouri River, is applicable and efficient. The results show submerged vanes are an appropriate solution for reduction of sediment deposition in a turnout entrance. The flow was treated as 3D and tests results were obtained for the flow characteristics of dividing flows in a 90-degree sharp-edged, junction. The main and lateral channel were rectangular with the same dimensions (Ramamurthy et al., 2007).

Keshavarzi & Habibi (2005) carried out experiments on intake with angles of 45, 67, 79 and 90 degrees in different discharge ratios and reported the optimum angle for inlet flow with the lowest flow separation area to be about 55 degrees. The predicted flow characteristics were validated using experimental data. The results indicated that the width and length of the separation zone increases with the increase in the discharge ratio Qr (ratio of outflow per unit width in the turnout to inflow per unit width in the main channel).

Abbasi et al. (2004) performed experiments to investigate the dimensions of the flow separation zone at a lateral turnout entrance. They demonstrated that the length and width of the separation zone decreases with the increasing ratio of lateral turn-out discharge. They also found that with a reducing angle of lateral turnout, the length of the separation zone scales up and width of separation zone reduces. Then they compared their observations with results of Kasthuri & Pundarikanthan (1987) who conducted some experiments in an open-channel junction formed by channels of equal width and an angle of lateral 90 degree turnout, which showed the dimensions of the separation zone in their experiments to be smaller than in previous studies. Kasthuri & Pundarikanthan (1987) studied vortex and flow separation dimensions at the entrance of a 90 degree channel. Results showed that increasing the diversion discharge ratio can reduce the length and width of the vortex area. They also showed that the length and width of the vortex area remain constant at diversion ratios greater than 0.7. Karami Moghaddam & Keshavarzi (2007) analyzed the flow characteristics in turnouts with angles of 55 and 90 degrees. They reported that the dimensions of the separation zone decrease by increasing the discharge ratio and reducing the turnout angle with respect to the main channel. Studies about flow separation zone can be found in Jalili et al. (2011), Nikbin & Borghei (2011), Seyedian et al. (2008).

Jamshidi et al. (2016) measured the dimensions of a flow separation zone in the presence of submerged vanes with five arrangements (parallel, stagger, compound, piney and butterflies). Results showed that the ratio of the width to the length of the separation zone (shape index) was between 0.2 and 0.28 for all arrangements.

Karami et al. (2017) developed a 3D computational fluid dynamic (CFD) code which was calibrated by measured data. They used the model to evaluate flow pattern, diversion ratio of discharge, strength of the secondary flow, and dimensions of the vortex inside the channel in various dikes and submerged vane installation scenarios. Results showed that the diversion ratio of discharge in the diversion channel is dependent on the width of the flow separation area in the main channel. A dike, perpendicular to the flow, doubles the ratio of diverted discharge and reduces the suspended sediment load compared with the base-line situation by creating outer arch conditions. In addition, increasing the longitudinal distance between vanes increases the velocity gradient between the vanes and leads to a more severe erosion of the bed near the vanes.Figure 1 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Laboratory channel dimensions.

Al-Zubaidy & Hilo (2021) used the Navier–Stokes equation to study the flow of incompressible fluids. Using the CFD software ANSYS Fluent 19.2, 3D flow patterns were simulated at a diversion channel. Their results showed good agreement using the comparison between the experimental and numerical results when the k-omega turbulence viscous model was employed. Simulation of the flow pattern was then done at the lateral channel junction using a variety of geometry designs. These improvements included changing the intake’s inclination angle and chamfering and rounding the inner corner of the intake mouth instead of the sharp edge. Flow parameters at the diversion including velocity streamlines, bed shear stress, and separation zone dimensions were computed in their study. The findings demonstrated that changing the 90° lateral intake geometry can improve the flow pattern and bed shear stress at the intake junction. Consequently, sedimentation and erosion problems are reduced. According to the conclusions of their study, a branching angle of 30° to 45° is the best configuration for increasing branching channel discharge, lowering branching channel sediment concentration.

The review of the literature shows that most of the studies deal with turnout angle, discharge ratio and implementation of vanes as techniques to reduce the area of the separation zone. This study examines the effect of roughness coefficient and drop implementation at the entrance of a 90-degree lateral turnout on the dimensions of the separation zone. As far as the authors are aware, these two variables have never been studied as a remedy to decrease the separation zone dimensions whilst enhancing turnout efficiency. Additionally, a three-dimensional numerical model is applied to simulate the flow pattern around the turnout. The numerical results are verified against experimental data.

METHOD

Experimental setup

The experiments were conducted in a 90 degree dividing flow laboratory channel. The main channel is 15 m long, 0.5 m wide and 0.4 m high and the branch channel is 3 m long, 0.35 m wide and 0.4 m high, as shown in Figure 1. The tests were carried out at 9.65 m from the beginning of the flume and were far enough from the inlet, so we were sure that the flow was fully developed. According to Kirkgöz & Ardiçlioğlu (1997) the length of the developing region would be approximantly 65 and 72 times the flow depth. In this study, the depth is 9 cm, which makes this condition.

Both the main and lateral channel had a slope of 0.0003 with side walls of concrete. A 100 hp pump discharged the water into a stilling basin at the entrance of the main flume. The discharge was measured using an ultrasonic discharge meter around the discharge pipe. Eighty-four experiments in total were carried out at range of 0.1<Fr<0.4 (Froude numbers in main channel and upstream of turnout). The depth of water in the main channel in the experiments was 9 cm, in which case the effect of surface tension can be considered; according to research by Zolghadr & Shafai Bejestan (2020) and Zolghadr et al. (2021), when the water depth is more than 6 cm, the effect of surface tension is reduced and can be ignored given that the separation phenomenon occurs in the boundary layer, the height of the roughness creates disturbances in growth and development of the boundary layer and, as a result, separation growth is also faced with disruption and its dimensions grow less compared to smooth surfaces. Similar conditions occur in case of drop implementation. A disturbance occurs in the growth of the boundary layer and as a result the separation zone dimensions decrease. In order to investigate the effect of roughness coefficient and drop implementation on the separation zone dimensions, four different discharges (16, 18, 21, 23 l/s) in subcritical conditions, seven Manning (Strickler) roughness coefficients (0.009, 0.011, 0.017, 0.023, 0.028, 0.030, 0.032) as shown in Figure 2 and three invert elevation differences between the main channel and lateral turnout invert (0, 5 and 10 cm) at the entrance of the turnout were considered. The Manning roughness coefficient values were selected based on available and feasible values for real conditions, so that 0.009 is equivalent to galvanized sheet roughness and selected for the baseline tests. 0.011 is for concrete with neat surface, 0.017 and 0.023 are for unfinished and gunite concrete respectively. 0.030 and 0.032 values are for concrete on irregular excavated rock (Chow 1959). The roughness coefficients were created by gluing sediment particles on a thin galvanized sheet which was installed at the upstream side of the lateral turnout. The values of roughness coefficients were calculated based on the Manning-Strickler formula. For this purpose, some uniformly graded sediment samples were prepared and the Manning roughness coefficient of each sample was determined with respect to the median size (D₅₀) value pasted into the Manning-Strickler formula. Some KMnO₄ was sifted in the main channel upstream to visualize and measure the dimensions of the separation zone. Consequently, when KMnO₄ approached the lateral turnout a photo of the separation zone was taken from a top view. All the experiments were recorded and several photos were taken during the experiment after stablishment of steady flow conditions. The photos were then imported to AutoCAD to measure the separation zone dimensions. Because all the shooting was done with a high-definition camera and it was possible to zoom in, the results are very accurate.Figure 2 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Roughness plates.

The velocity values were also recorded by a one-dimensional velocity meter at 15 cm distance from the turnout entrance and in transverse direction (perpendicular to the flow direction).

The water level was also measured by depth gauges with a accuracy of 0.1 mm, and velocity in one direction with a single-dimensional KENEK LP 1100 with an accuracy of ±0.02 m/s (0–1 m/s), ± 0.04 m/s (1–2 m/s), ± 0.08 m/s (2–4 m/s), ±0.10 m/s (4–5 m/s).

Numerical simulation

ListenA FLOW-3D numerical model was utilized as a solver of the Navier-Stokes equation to simulate the three-dimensional flow field at the entrance of the turnout. The governing equations included continuity momentum equations. The continuity equation, regardless of the density of the fluid in the form of Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z, is as follows:

(1)where u, v, and w represent the velocity components in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; A_x, A_y, and A_z are the surface flow fractions in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; V_F denotes flow volume fraction; r is the density of the fluid; t is time; and R_sor refers to the source of the mass. Equations (2)–(4) show momentum equations in x, y and z dimensions respectively :

(2)

(3)

(4)where G_x, G_y, and G_z are the accelerations caused by gravity in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; and f_x, f_y, and f_z are the accelerations caused by viscosity in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

The turbulence models used in this study were the renormalized group (RNG) models. Evaluation of the concordance of the mentioned models with experimental studies showed that the RNG model provides more accurate results.

Two blocks of mesh were used to simulate the main channels and lateral turnout. The meshes were denser in the vicinity of the entrance of the turnout in order to increase the accuracy of computations. Boundary conditions for the main mesh block included inflow for the channel entrance (volumetric flow rate), outflow for the channel exit, ‘wall’ for the bed and the right boundary and ‘symmetry’ for the top (free surface) and left boundaries (turnout). The side wall roughness coefficient was given to the software as the Manning number in surface roughness of any component. Considering the restrictions in the available processor, a main mesh block with appropriate mesh size was defined to simulate the main flow field in the channel, while the nested mesh-block technique was utilized to create a very dense solution field near the roughness plate in order to provide accurate results around the plates and near the entrance of the lateral turnout. This technique reduced the number of required mesh elements by up to 60% in comparison with the method in which the mesh size of the main solution field was decreased to the required extent.

The numerical outputs are verified against experimental data. The hydraulic characteristics of the experiment are shown in Table 1.Table 1

Hydraulic conditions of the flow

Q(L/s)	Fr	Y₁ (m)	Q₂/Q₁
16	0.449	0.09	0.22
18	0.335	0.09	0.61
21	0.242	0.09	0.71
23	0.180	0.09	1.04

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Experimental results

During the experiments, the dimensions of the separation zone were recorded with an HD camera. Some photos were imported to AutoCad software. Then, the separation zones dimensions were measured and compared in different scenarios.

At the beginning, the flow pattern in the separation zone for four different hydraulic conditions was studied for seven different Manning roughness coefficients from 0.009 to 0.032. To compare the obtained results, roughness of 0.009 was considered as the base line. The percentage of reduction in separation zone area in different roughness coefficients is shown in Figure 3. According to this figure, by increasing the roughness of the turnout side wall, the separation zone area ratio reduces (ratio of separation zone area to turnout area). In other words, in any desired Froud number, the highest dimensions of the separation zone area are related to the lowest roughness coefficients. In Figure 3, ‘A’ is the area of the separation zone and ‘A_i’ represents the total area of the turnout.Figure 3 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions.Figure 4 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions.

It should be mentioned that the separation zone dimensions change with depth, so that the area is larger at the surface than near the bed. This study measured the dimensions of this area at the surface. Figure 4 show exactly where the roughness elements were located.Figure 5 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison of separation zone for n=0.023 and n=0.032.

Figure 5 shows images of the separation zone at n=0.023 and n=0.032 as examples, and show that the separation area at n=0.032 is smaller than that of n=0.023.

The difference between the effect of the two 0.032 and 0.030 roughnesses is minor. In other words, the dimensions of the separation zone decreased by increasing roughness up to 0.030 and then remained with negligable changes.

In the next step, the effect of intake invert relative to the main stream (drop) on the dimensions of the separation zone was investigated. To do this, three different invert levels were considered: (1) without drop; (2) a 5 cm drop between the main canal and intake canal; and (3) a 10 cm drop between the main canal and intake canal. The without drop mode was considered as the control state. Figure 6 shows the effect of drop implementation on separation zone dimensions. Tables 2 and 3 show the reduced percentage of separation zone areas in 5 and 10 cm drop compared to no drop conditions as the base line. It was found that the best results were obtained when a 10 cm drop was implemented.Table 2

Decrease percentage of separation zone area in 5 cm drop

Fr	n=0.011	n=0.017	n=0.023	n=0.028	n=0.030	n=0.032
0.08	10.56	11.06	25.27	33.03	35.57	36.5
0.121	7.66	11.14	11.88	15.93	34.59	36.25
0.353	1.38	2.63	8.17	14.39	31.20	31.29
0.362	3	11.54	19.56	25.73	37.89	38.31

Table 3

Decrease percentage of separation zone area in 10 cm drop

Fr	n=0.011	n=0.017	n=0.023	n=0.028	n=0.030	n=0.032
0.047	4.30	8.75	23.47	31.22	34.96	35.13
0.119	11.01	13.16	15.02	21.48	39.45	40.68
0.348	3.89	5.71	9.82	16.09	29	30.96
0.354	2.84	10.44	18.42	25.45	35.68	35.76

Figure 6 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of drop implementation on separation zone dimensions.

The combined effect of drop and roughness is shown in Figure 7. According to this figure, by installing a drop structure at the entrance of the intake, the dimensions of the separation zone scales down in any desired roughness coefficient. Results indicated that by increasing the roughness coefficient or drop implementation individually, the separation zone area decreases up to 38 and 25% respectively. However, employing both techniques simultaneously can reduce the separation zone area up to 63% (Table 4). The reason for the reduction of the dimensions of the separation zone area by drop implementation can be attributed to the increase of discharge ratio. This reduces the dimensions of the separation zone area.Table 4

Reduction in percentage of combined effect of roughness and 10 cm drop

Qi	n=0.011	n=0.017	n=0.023	n=0.028	n=0.030	n=0.032
16	32.3	35.07	37.2	45.7	58.01	59.1
18	44.5	34.15	36.18	48.13	54.2	56.18
21	43.18	32.33	42.30	37.79	57.16	63.2
23	40.56	34.5	34.09	46.25	50.12	57.2

Figure 7 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Combined effect of roughness and drop on separation zone dimensions.

This method increases the discharge ratio (ratio of turnout to main channel discharge). The results are compatible with the literature. Some other researchers reported that increasing the discharge ratio can scale down the separation zone dimensions (Karami Moghaddam & Keshavarzi 2007; Ramamurthy et al. 2007). However, these researchers employed other methods to enhance the discharge ratio. Drop implementation is simple and applicable in practice, since there is normally an elevation difference between the main and lateral canal in irrigation networks to ensure gravity flow occurance.

Table 4 depicts the decrease in percentage of the separation zone compared to base line conditions in different arrangements of the combined tests.Figure 8 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Velocity profiles for various roughness coefficients along turnout width.

A comparison between the proposed methods introduced in this paper and traditional methods such as installation of submerged vanes, and changing the inlet geometry (angle, radius) was performed. Figure 8 shows the comparison of the results. The comparison shows that the new techniques can be highly influential and still practical. In this research, with no change in structural geometry (enhancement of roughness coefficient) or minor changes with respect to drop implementation, the dimensions of the separation zone are decreased noticeably. The velocity values were also recorded by a one-dimensional velocity meter at 15 cm distance from the turnout entrance and in a transverse direction (perpendicular to the flow direction). The results are shown in Figure 9.Figure 9 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions in numerical study.

Numerical results

This study examined the flow patterns around the entrance of a diversion channel due to various wall roughnesses in the diversion channel. Results indicated that increasing the discharge ratio in the main channel and diversion channel reduces the area of the separation zone in the diversion channel.Figure 10 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparision of the vortex area (software output) for three roughnesses (0.009, 0.023 and 0.032).A laboratory and numerical error rate of 0.2605 was calculated from the following formula,

where U_exp is the experimental result, Unum is the numerical result, and N is the number of data.

Figure 9 shows the effect of roughness on separation zone dimensions in numerical study. Figure 10 compares the vortex area (software output) for three roughnesses, 0.009, 0.023 and 0.032 and Figure 11 shows the flow lines (tecplot output) that indicate the effect of roughness on flow in the separation zone. Numerical analysis shows that by increasing the roughness coefficient, the dimensions of the separation zone area decrease, as shown in Figure 10 where the separation zone area at n=0.032 is less than the separation zone area at n=0.009.Figure 11 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Comparison of vortex area in 3D mode (tecplot output) with two roughnesses (a) 0.009 and (b) 0.032.Figure 12 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Velocity vector for flow condition Q1/422 l/s, near surface.

The velocities intensified moving midway toward the turnout showing that the effective area is scaled down. The velocity values were almost equal to zero near the side walls as expected. As shown in Figure 12 the approach vortex area velocity decreases. Experimental and numerical measured velocity at x=0.15 m of the diversion channel compared in Figure 13 shows that away from the separation zone area, the velocity increases. All longitudinal velocity contours near the vortex area are distinctly different between different roughnesses. The separation zone is larger at less roughness both in length and width.Figure 13 VIEW LARGE DOWNLOAD SLIDE

Exprimental and numerical measured velocity.

CONCLUSION

This study introduces practical and feasible methods for enhancing turnout efficiency by reducing the separation zone dimensions. Increasing the roughness coefficient and implementation of inlet drop were considered as remedies for reduction of separation zone dimensions. A data set has been compiled that fully describes the complex, 3D flow conditions present in a 90 degree turnout channel for selected flow conditions. The aim of this numerical model was to compare the results of a laboratory model in the area of the separation zone and velocity. Results showed that enhancing roughness coefficient reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 38% while the drop implementation effect can scale down this area differently based on roughness coefficient used. Combining both methods can reduce the separation zone dimensions up to 63%. Further research is proposed to investigate the effect of roughness and drop implementation on sedimentation pattern at lateral turnouts. The dimensions of the separation zone decreases with the increase of the non-dimensional parameter, due to the reduction ratio of turnout discharge increasing in all the experiments.

This method increases the discharge ratio (ratio of turnout to main channel discharge). The results are compatible with the literature. Other researchers have reported that intensifying the discharge ratio can scale down the separation zone dimensions (Karami Moghaddam & Keshavarzi 2007; Ramamurthy et al. 2007). However, they employed other methods to enhance the discharge ratio. Employing both techniques simultaneously can decrease the separation zone dimensions up to 63%. A comparison between the new methods introduced in this paper and traditional methods such as installation of submerged vanes, and changing the inlet geometry (angle, radius) was performed. The comparison shows that the new techniques can be highly influential and still practical. The numerical and laboratory models are in good agreement and show that the method used in this study has been effective in reducing the separation area. This method is simple, economical and can prevent sediment deposition in the intake canal. Results show that CFD prediction of the fluid through the separation zone at the canal intake can be predicted reasonably well and the RNG model offers the best results in terms of predictability.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

REFERENCES

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Fluid Thermodynamic Simulation of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy in Laser Wire Deposition

Xiang Wang, Lin-Jie Zhang, Jie Ning, and Suck-Joo Na
Published Online:8 Apr 2022https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2021.0159

Abstract

A 3D numerical model of heat transfer and fluid flow of molten pool in the process of laser wire deposition was presented by computational fluid dynamics technique. The simulation results of the deposition morphology were also compared with the experimental results under the condition of liquid bridge transfer mode. Moreover, they showed a good agreement. Considering the effect of recoil pressure, the morphology of the deposit metal obtained by the simulation was similar to the experiment result. Molten metal at the wire tip was peeled off and flowed into the molten pool, and then spread to both sides of the deposition layer under the recoil pressure. In addition, the results of simulation and high-speed charge-coupled device presented that a wedge transition zone, with a length of ∼6 mm, was formed behind the keyhole in the liquid bridge transfer process, where the height of deposited metal decreased gradually. After solidification, metal in the transition zone retained the original melt morphology, resulting in a decrease in the height of the tail of the deposition layer.

Keywords

LWD, CFD, liquid bridge transfer, fluid dynamics, wedge transition zone

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Figure 6. Circular section of the viscosity and shear-rate clouds.

Simulation and Visual Tester Verification of Solid Propellant Slurry Vacuum Plate Casting

Wu Yue,Li Zhuo,Lu RongFirst published: 26 February 2020 https://doi.org/10.1002/prep.201900411Citations: 3

Abstract

Using an improved Carreau constitutive model, a numerical simulation of the casting process of a type of solid propellant slurry vacuum plate casting was carried out using the Flow3D software. Through the flow process in the orifice flow channel and the combustion chamber, the flow velocity of the slurry passing through the plate flow channel was quantitatively analyzed, and the viscosity, shear rate, and leveling characteristics of the slurry in the combustion chamber were qualitatively analyzed and predicted. The pouring time, pouring quality, and flow state predicted by the numerical simulation were verified using a visual tester consisting of a vacuum plate casting system in which a pouring experiment was carried out. Studies have shown that HTPB three-component propellant slurry is a typical yielding pseudoplastic fluid. When the slurry flows through the flower plate and the airfoil, the fluid shear rate reaches its maximum value and the viscosity of the slurry decreases. The visual pouring platform was built and the experiment was controlled according to the numerically-calculated parameters, ensuring the same casting speed. The comparison between the predicted casting quality and the one obtained in the verification test resulted in an error less than 10 %. Moreover, the error between the simulated casting completion time and the process verification test result was also no more than 10 %. Last, the flow state of the slurry during the simulation was consistent with the one during the experimental test. The overall leveling of the slurry in the combustion chamber was adequate and no relatively large holes and flaws developed during the pouring process.

개선된 Carreau 구성 모델을 사용하여 FLOW-3D 소프트웨어를 사용하여 고체 추진제 슬러리 진공판 유형의 Casting Process에 대한 수치 시뮬레이션을 수행했습니다. 오리피스 유로와 연소실에서의 유동과정을 통해 판 유로를 통과하는 슬러리의 유속을 정량적으로 분석하고, 연소실에서 슬러리의 점도, 전단율, 레벨링 특성을 정성적으로 분석하하고, 예측하였습니다.

타설시간, 타설품질, 수치해석으로 예측된 유동상태는 타설실험을 수행한 진공판주조시스템으로 구성된 비주얼 테스터를 이용하여 검증하였습니다.

연구에 따르면 HTPB 3성분 추진제 슬러리는 전형적인 생성 가소성 유체입니다. 슬러리가 플라워 플레이트와 에어포일을 통과할 때 유체 전단율이 최대값에 도달하고 슬러리의 점도가 감소합니다.

시각적 주입 플랫폼이 구축되었고 동일한 주조 속도를 보장하기 위해 수치적으로 계산된 매개변수에 따라 실험이 제어되었습니다. 예측된 casting 품질과 검증 테스트에서 얻은 품질을 비교한 결과 10 % 미만의 오류가 발생했습니다.

또한 모의 casting 완료시간과 공정검증시험 결과의 오차도 10 % 이하로 나타났습니다.

마지막으로 시뮬레이션 중 슬러리의 흐름 상태는 실험 테스트 시와 일치하였다. 연소실에서 슬러리의 전체 레벨링은 적절했으며 주입 과정에서 상대적으로 큰 구멍과 결함이 발생하지 않았습니다.

Figure 1. The equipment used in the vacuum flower-plate pouring process.

Figure 4. Circular section of the speed cloud.

Figure 5. Viscosity and shear rate distribution cloud pattern flowing through the plate holes.

Figure 7. Volume fraction cloud chart at different time.

Figure 9. Emulation experimental device.

Figure 10. Visualization of the flow state of the pulp inside the tester.

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Full Test View

Figure 8: Instantaneous flow structures extracted using the Q-criterion (Qcriterion=1200) and colored by the magnitude of flow velocity.

Hybrid modeling on 3D hydraulic features of a step-pool unit

Chendi Zhang¹
, Yuncheng Xu^1,2, Marwan A Hassan³
, Mengzhen Xu1
, Pukang He1
¹State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China. 2
College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100081, China.
^{5 3}Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, 1984 West Mall, Vancouver BC, V6T1Z2, Canada.
Correspondence to: Chendi Zhang (chendinorthwest@163.com) and Mengzhen Xu (mzxu@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn)

Abstract

스텝 풀 시스템은 계류의 일반적인 기반이며 전 세계의 하천 복원 프로젝트에 활용되었습니다. 스텝 풀 장치는 스텝 풀 기능의 형태학적 진화 및 안정성과 밀접하게 상호 작용하는 것으로 보고된 매우 균일하지 않은 수력 특성을 나타냅니다.

그러나 스텝 풀 형태에 대한 3차원 수리학의 자세한 정보는 측정의 어려움으로 인해 부족했습니다. 이러한 지식 격차를 메우기 위해 SfM(Structure from Motion) 및 CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) 기술을 기반으로 하이브리드 모델을 구축했습니다. 이 모델은 CFD 시뮬레이션을 위한 입력으로 6가지 유속의 자연석으로 만든 인공 스텝 풀 장치가 있는 침대 표면의 3D 재구성을 사용했습니다.

하이브리드 모델은 스텝 풀 장치에 대한 3D 흐름 구조의 고해상도 시각화를 제공하는 데 성공했습니다. 결과는 계단 아래의 흐름 영역의 분할, 즉 수면에서의 통합 점프, 침대 근처의 줄무늬 후류 및 그 사이의 고속 제트를 보여줍니다.

수영장에서 난류 에너지의 매우 불균일한 분포가 밝혀졌으며 비슷한 용량을 가진 두 개의 에너지 소산기가 수영장에 공존하는 것으로 나타났습니다. 흐름 증가에 따른 풀 세굴 개발은 점프 및 후류 와류의 확장으로 이어지지만 이러한 증가는 스텝 풀 실패에 대한 임계 조건에 가까운 높은 흐름에서 점프에 대해 멈춥니다.

음의 경사면에서 발달된 곡물 20 클러스터와 같은 미세 지반은 국부 수력학에 상당한 영향을 주지만 이러한 영향은 수영장 바닥에서 억제됩니다. 스텝 스톤의 항력은 가장 높은 흐름이 사용되기 전에 배출과 함께 증가하는 반면 양력은 더 큰 크기와 더 넓은 범위를 갖습니다. 우리의 결과는 계단 풀 형태의 복잡한 흐름 특성을 조사할 때 물리적 및 수치적 모델링을 결합한 하이브리드 모델 접근 방식의 가능성과 큰 잠재력을 강조합니다.

Step-pool systems are common bedforms in mountain streams and have been utilized in river restoration projects around the world. Step-pool units exhibit highly non-uniform hydraulic characteristics which have been reported to closely 10 interact with the morphological evolution and stability of step-pool features. However, detailed information of the threedimensional hydraulics for step-pool morphology has been scarce due to the difficulty of measurement. To fill in this knowledge gap, we established a hybrid model based on the technologies of Structure from Motion (SfM) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The model used 3D reconstructions of bed surfaces with an artificial step-pool unit built by natural stones at six flow rates as inputs for CFD simulations. The hybrid model succeeded in providing high-resolution visualization 15 of 3D flow structures for the step-pool unit. The results illustrate the segmentation of flow regimes below the step, i.e., the integral jump at the water surface, streaky wake vortexes near the bed, and high-speed jets in between. The highly non-uniform distribution of turbulence energy in the pool has been revealed and two energy dissipaters with comparable capacity are found to co-exist in the pool. Pool scour development under flow increase leads to the expansion of the jump and wake vortexes but this increase stops for the jump at high flows close to the critical condition for step-pool failure. The micro-bedforms as grain 20 clusters developed on the negative slope affect the local hydraulics significantly but this influence is suppressed at pool bottom. The drag forces on the step stones increase with discharge before the highest flow is used while the lift force has a larger magnitude and wider varying range. Our results highlight the feasibility and great potential of the hybrid model approach combining physical and numerical modeling in investigating the complex flow characteristics of step-pool morphology.

Figure 1: Workflow of the hybrid modeling. SfM-MVS refers to the technology of Structure from Motion with Multi View Stereo. DSM is short for digital surface model. RNG-VOF is short for Renormalized Group (RNG) k-ε turbulence model coupled with Volume of Fluid method.

Figure 2: Flume experiment settings in Zhang et al., (2020): (a) the artificially built-up step-pool model using natural stones, with stone number labelled; (b) the unsteady hydrograph of the run of CIFR (continually-increasing-flow-rate) T2 used in this study.

Figure 3: Setup of the CFD model: (a) three-dimensional digital surface model (DSM) of the step-pool unit by structure from motion with multi view stereo (SfM-MVS) method as the input to the 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling; (b) extruded bed 160 surface model connected to the extra downstream component (in purple blue) and rectangular columns to fill leaks (in green), with the boundary conditions shown on mesh planes; (c) recognized geometry with mesh grids of two mesh blocks shown where MS is short for mesh size; (d) sampling volumes to capture the flow forces acting on each step stone at X, Y, and Z directions; and (e) an example for the simulated 3D flow over the step-pool unit colored by velocity magnitude at the discharge of 49.9 L/s. The abbreviations for boundary conditions in (b) are: V for specified velocity; C for continuative; P for specific pressure; and W for wall 165 condition. The contraction section in Figure (e) refers to the edge between the jet and jump at water surface.

Figure 4: Distribution of time-averaged velocity magnitude (VM_mean) and vectors in three longitudinal sections. The section at Y = 0 cm goes across the keystone while the other two (Y = -18 and 13.5 cm) are located at the step stones beside the keystone with 265 lower top elevations. Q refers to the discharge at the inlet of the computational domain. The spacing for X, Y, and Z axes are all 10 cm in the plots. — Figure 4: Distribution of time-averaged velocity magnitude (VM_mean) and vectors in three longitudinal sections. The section at Y = 0 cm goes across the keystone while the other two (Y = -18 and 13.5 cm) are located at the step stones beside the keystone with lower top elevations. Q refers to the discharge at the inlet of the computational domain. The spacing for X, Y, and Z axes are all 10 cm in the plots.

Figure 5: Distribution of time-averaged flow velocity at five cross sections which are set according to the reference section (x0). The reference cross section x0 is located at the downstream end of the keystone (KS). The five sections are located at 18 cm and 6 cm upstream of the reference section (x0-18 and x0-6), and 2 cm, 15 cm and 40 cm downstream of the reference section (x0+2, x0+15, x0+40). The spacing for X, Y, and Z axes are all 10 cm in the plots.

Figure 6: Distribution of the time-averaged turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) at the five cross sections same with Figure 3.

Figure 7: Boxplots for the distributions of the mass-averaged flow kinetic energy (KE, panels a-f), turbulence kinetic energy (TKE, panels g-l), and turbulent dissipation (εT, panels m-r) in the pool for all the six tested discharges (the plots at the same discharge are in the same row). The mass-averaged values were calculated every 2 cm in the streamwise direction. The flow direction is from left to right in all the plots. The general locations of the contraction section for all the flow rates are marked by the dashed lines, except for Q = 5 L/s when the jump is located too close to the step. The longitudinal distance taken up by negative slope in the pool for the inspected range is shown by shaded area in each plot.

Figure 9: Time-averaged dynamic pressure (DP_mean) on the bed surface in the step-pool model under the two highest discharges, with the step numbers marked. The negative values in the plots result from the setting of standard atmospheric pressure = 0 Pa, whose absolute value is 1.013×105 Pa.

Figure 10: Time-averaged shear stress (SS_mean) on bed surface in the step-pool model, with the step numbers marked. The standard atmospheric pressure is set as 0 Pa.

Figure 11: Variation of fluid force components and magnitude of resultant flow force acting on step stones with flow rate. The stone 4 is the keystone. Stone numbers are consistent with those in Fig. 9-10. The upper limit of the sampling volumes for flow force calculation is higher than water surface while the lower limit is set at 3 cm lower than the keystone crest.

Figure 12: Variation of drag (CD) and lift (CL) coefficient of the step stones along with flow rate. Stone numbers are consistent with those in Fig. 8-9. KS is short for keystone. The negative values of CD correspond to the drag forces towards the upstream while the negative values of CL correspond to lift forces pointing downwards.

Figure 13: Longitudinal distributions of section-averaged and -integral turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) for the jump and wake vortexes at the largest three discharges. The flow direction is from left to right in all the plots. The general locations of the contraction sections under the three flow rates are marked by dashed lines in figures (d) to (f).

Figure A1: Water surface profiles of the simulations with different mesh sizes at the discharge of 43.6 L/s at the longitudinal sections at: (a) Y = 24.5 cm (left boundary); (b) Y = 0.3 cm (middle section); (c) Y = -24.5 cm (right boundary). MS is short for mesh size. The flow direction is from left to right in each plot.

Figure A2: Contours of velocity magnitude in the longitudinal section at Y = 0 cm at different mesh sizes (MSs) under the flow condition with the discharge of 43.6 L/s: (a) 0.50 cm; (b) 0.375 cm; (c) 0.30 cm; (d) 0.27 cm; (e) 0.25 cm; (f) 0.24 cm. The flow direction is from left to right.

Figure A3: Measurements of water surfaces (orange lines) used in model verification: (a) water surface profiles from both sides of the flume; (b) upstream edge of the jump regime from top view. KS refers to keystone in figure (b).

Figure A15. Figure (a) shows the locations of the cross sections and target coarse grains at Q = 49.9 L/s. Figures (b) to (e) show the distribution of velocity magnitude (VM_mean) in the four chosen cross sections: (a) x0+8.0; (b) x0+14.0; (c) x0+21.5; (d) x0+42.5. G1 to G6 refer to 6 protruding grains in the micro-bedforms in the pool.

Figure A16. The distribution of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) in the same cross sections as in figure S15: (a) x0+8.0; (b) x0+14.0; (c) x0+21.5; (d) x0+42.5.

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유입조건에 따른압력변이로 인한하천횡단구조물 하류물받이공 및 바닥보호공설계인자 도출최종보고서

주관연구기관 / 홍익대학교 산학협력단
공동연구기관 / 한국건설기술연구원
공동연구기관 / 주식회사 지티이

연구의 목적 및 내용

하천횡단구조물이 하천설계기준(2009)대로 설계되었음에도 불구하고, 하류부에서 물받이공 및 바닥보호공의 피해가 발생하여, 구조물 본체에 대한 안전성이 현저하 게 낮아지고 있는 실정이다. 하천설계기준이 상류부의 수리특성을 반영하였다고 하나 하류부의 수리특성인 유속의 변동 성분 또는 압력의 변동성분까지 고려하고 있지는 않다. 현재 많은 선행연구에서 이러한 난류적 특성이 구조물에 미치는 영 향에 대해 제시하고 있는 실정이며, 국내 하천에서의 피해 또한 이와 관련이 있다 고 판단된다. 이에 본 연구에서는 난류성분 특히 압력의 변동성분이 물받이공과 바닥보호공에 미치는 영향을 정량적으로 분석하여, 하천 횡단구조물의 치수 안전 성 증대에 기여하고자 한다. 물받이공과 바닥보호공에 미치는 압력의 변동성분 (pressure fluctuation) 영향을 분석하기 위해 크게 3가지로 연구내용을 분류하였 다. 첫 번째는 압력의 변동으로 순간적인 음압구배(adversed pressure gradient) 가 발생할 경우 바닥보호공의 사석 및 블록이 이탈하는 것이다. 이를 확인하기 위 해 정밀한 압력 측정장치를 통해 압력변이를 측정하여, 사석의 이탈 가능성을 검 토할 것이며, 최종적으로 이탈에 대한 한계조건을 도출할 것이다. 두 번째는 압력 의 변동이 물받이공의 진동을 유발시켜 이를 지지하고 있는 지반에 다짐효과를 가 져와 물받이공과 지반사이에 공극이 발생하는 경우이다. 이러한 공극으로 물받이 공은 자중 및 물의 압력을 받게 되어, 결국 휨에 의한 파괴가 발생할 가능성이 있 게 된다. 본 연구에서는 실험을 통하여 압력의 변동과 물받이공의 진동을 동시에 측정하여, 진동이 발생하지 않을 최소 두께를 제시할 것이다. 세 번째는 압력변이 로 인한 물받이공의 진동이 피로파괴로 연결되는 경우이다. 이 현상 또한 수리실 험을 통해 압력변이-피로파괴의 관계를 정량적으로 분석하여, 한계 조건을 제시할 것이다. 본 연구는 국내 보 및 낙차공에서 발생하는 다양한 Jet의 특성을 수리실 험으로 재현해야 하며, 이를 위해 평면 Jet 분사기(plane Jet injector)를 고안/ 제작하여, 효율적인 수리실험을 수행할 것이다. 또한 3차원 수치해석을 통해 실제 스케일에 적용함으로써 연구결과의 활용도 및 적용성을 높이고자 한다.

Keywords

압력변이, 물받이공, 바닥보호공, 난류, 진동

그림 3. 하천횡단구조물 하류부 도수현상시 발생하는 압력변이 분포도, Fr=8.0 상태이며, 바닥(slab)에 양압과 음압이 지속적으로 작용한다. (Fiorotto & Rinaldo, 2010)

그림 8. BIV측정기법을 적용한 순간이미지 (Lin et al., 2012)

그림 17 수리실헐 수로시설: (a) 전체수로전경, (b) Weir 보를 포함한 측면도, (c) 도수조건 실험전경

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원본 보기

Flow-3D 모형을 이용한 인공어초 설치 지반의 입경에 따른 세굴 특성 분석

발행기관 : 한국방재학회
저자명 : 윤대호(Yun, Dae-Ho) , 김정태(Kim, Jeong-Tae) , 윤한삼(Yoon, Han-Sam) , 나원배(Na, Won-Bae) , 김윤태(Kim, Yun-Tae)
간행물 정보 : 한국방재학회 논문집 22권1호 , 185~192쪽, 전체 8쪽
파일형식 : PDF
발행일자 : 2022.02.28

Abstract

해저 지반에 설치되는 인공어초는 유속 및 수심이 동일한 경우라도 지반 조건에 따라 세굴 패턴이 크게 차이나는 경우가 있다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 모래, 실트 및 점토 등과 같이 다양한 해저 지반에 설치하는 인공어초의 지반공학적 안정성을 평가하고자 Flow-3D를 이용하여 세굴 해석을 수행하였다. 수치해석 결과 지반 입경이 작을수록 인공어초 주변에서 발생하는 세굴량이 커지며, 평형상태에 도달하는 시간이 더 오래 걸리는 결과를 보였다. 반면 입경이 커질수록 세굴량이 작아지며, 세굴된 지반 입자가 인공어초 후면부에 퇴적되는 결과를 보였다. 또한 최대 세굴심도와 입경은 비선형적인 관계를 나타내었다. 특히 세립토에서 최대 세굴심도가 크게 증가하였다.

Artificial reef-installed seabeds may have significantly different scouring patterns depending on the ground conditions, such as the soil particle size, even though the flow velocity and water depth are similar. In this study, the scour characteristics of the ground were determined using Flow-3D to evaluate the geotechnical stability of artificial reefs installed on various seabeds, such as sand, silt, and clay. The analysis results indicated that the smaller the particle size of the soil, the larger the amount of scour that occurs around the artificial reef and the longer it takes to reach an equilibrium state. However, eroded soil particles were deposited on the rear part of the artificial reef as the soil particle size increased. The maximum scour depth and average particle size showed a non-linear relationship. In particular, the maximum scour depth increased significantly in fine-grained soils.

Keywords

인공어초 , Flow-3D, 지반 입경 , 세굴 , 최대 세굴심도 , Artificial Reef , Flow-3D , Soil Particle Size , Scour , Maximum Scour Depth

RIKEN RIBF의 He-Gas 스트리퍼 및 회전 디스크 스트리퍼

He Gas Stripper and Rotating Disk Stripper at the RIKEN RIBF

理研 RI ビームファクトリーにおける He ガスと回転ディスクストリッパー

今尾浩士 *・長谷部裕雄 *

서론

우라늄 빔 등 중원소 빔의 대강도화는 다양한 단수명 원자핵을 생성·이용하고 우주에서의 원소 합성을 이해하기 위한 필수 과제이다. 중이온의 가속에 있어서는, 복수의 가속기를 이용하여, 고에너지까지 캐스케이드상으로 가속해 가지만, 효율적인 가속을 위해 도중의 하전 변환 과정은 필수 과정이라고 할 수 있다.

리켄 RI 빔팩토리(RIBF) 1)에서는 가장 무거운 우라늄 등의 가속에 있어서, 2회의 하전 변환을 실시하고 있다.

그러나 기존에 사용해 온 고정형 탄소막 스트리퍼 2)의 내구성은 대강화의 원리적 병목이며, 미국 FRIB 계획 3) 등을 포함한 차세대 RI 생성 시설의 공통 문제에서도 있었다. RIBF는 가스 4-7)과 회전형 디스크 8, 9)를 사용하여 고강도 우라늄을 견딜 수있는 스트리퍼를 개발했다.

RIBF에서 238U 빔의 가속도를 그림 1에 나타내었다. 28 GHz의 초전도 ECR 이온 소스 (10, 11)로 생성 및 선별 된 238U35 +는 입사기 RILAC2와 4 개의 링 사이클로트론 (RRC, fRC, IRC, SRC)을 사용하여 345 MeV / u까지 가속된다.

스트리퍼는 RRC 가속 후 11 MeV / u와 fRC 가속 후 51 MeV / u에서 두 번 사용된다. 첫 번째 단계는 He 가스 스트리퍼를 사용하며 U35 +에서 U64 +로 변환한다. 두 번째 단계는 회전 흑연 시트 디스크 스트리퍼이며 U64 +에서 U86 +로 변환한다.

중이온 스트리퍼는 총 열 부하, 파워 손실이라는 의미에서는 전혀 작지만, 특히 큰 것은 단위 길이 에너지 손실 dE/dx이며, 이에 특유의 어려움이 있다. 우라늄의 dE / dx는 특히 크고, 수 MeV / u-50 MeV / u 정도까지의 스트리퍼는 dE / dx가 크고 두께가 고체로서는 얇아지기 때문에 어렵다.

우리의 11 MeV / u에서의 목표 강도 10 pA는 dE / dx로 정규화 된 경우, 예를 들어 400 MeV의 양성자 빔이라면 500 mA라고 불리우는 강도에 해당한다. 또한 우라늄의 국부적 인 에너지 손실로 인한 비선형 피해도보고되었으며 상황은 더욱 심각하다.

예를 들어 제1 스트리퍼로 탄소막을 사용했을 경우, 1 µm 정도 이하의 박막을 사용하지 않을 수 없고, 취약성, 불균일성과의 싸움으로, 열 제거도 어렵다. 실제로 RIBF 초기에 사용 된 고정형 탄소막 2)에서는 우라늄 빔 20pnA 정도의 조사 강도에서도 사용 가능 시간은 반일 정도였다. 그런 다음 두 번째 스트리퍼에서도 비슷한 상황이 발생했다.

현재 사용하고 있는 He 가스 스트리퍼와 회전형 그라파이트 디스크 스트리퍼는 당시의 약 100배의 강도라도 사용 시간을 거의 신경쓸 필요가 없을 정도의 내구성을 가지고 있다.

본 논문에서는 He 가스 스트리퍼와 회전형 스트리퍼에 대해 개요와 고출력 표적으로서의 측면을 중심으로 설명한다.

図1 He ガスと回転ディスクストリッパーを用いた現在の RIBF ウラン加速スキーム．

図5 オリフィスから噴出する He のマッハ数の CFD 計算（Solidworks flow simulation）.

図6 238U ビームによる He ガス温度上昇の実験値と計算値の比較．実験値は輸送条件の異なる幾つかの RUN のデータをプロットしている．

図7 マクロパルスの長さと周期を変えた時のΔt の変化（上）とマクロパルスの構造（下）．

図10 2 次元ラバール式ノズルによるガスジェットカーテンの計算例（Solidworks flow simulation）．図はマッハ数のプロットである．

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Multiscale Process Modeling of Residual Deformation and Defect Formation for Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing

Qian Chen, PhD
University of Pittsburgh, 2021

레이저 분말 베드 퓨전(L-PBF) 적층 제조(AM)는 우수한 기계적 특성으로 그물 모양에 가까운 복잡한 부품을 생산할 수 있습니다. 그러나 빌드 실패 및 다공성과 같은 결함으로 이어지는 원치 않는 잔류 응력 및 왜곡이 L-PBF의 광범위한 적용을 방해하고 있습니다.

L-PBF의 잠재력을 최대한 실현하기 위해 잔류 변형, 용융 풀 및 다공성 형성을 예측하는 다중 규모 모델링 방법론이 개발되었습니다. L-PBF의 잔류 변형 및 응력을 부품 규모에서 예측하기 위해 고유 변형 방법을 기반으로 하는 다중 규모 프로세스 모델링 프레임워크가 제안됩니다.

고유한 변형 벡터는 마이크로 스케일에서 충실도가 높은 상세한 다층 프로세스 시뮬레이션에서 추출됩니다. 균일하지만 이방성인 변형은 잔류 왜곡 및 응력을 예측하기 위해 준 정적 평형 유한 요소 분석(FEA)에서 레이어별로 L-PBF 부품에 적용됩니다.

부품 규모에서의 잔류 변형 및 응력 예측 외에도 분말 규모의 다중물리 모델링을 수행하여 공정 매개변수, 예열 온도 및 스패터링 입자에 의해 유도된 용융 풀 변동 및 결함 형성을 연구합니다. 이러한 요인과 관련된 용융 풀 역학 및 다공성 형성 메커니즘은 시뮬레이션 및 실험을 통해 밝혀졌습니다.

제안된 부품 규모 잔류 응력 및 왜곡 모델을 기반으로 경로 계획 방법은 큰 잔류 변형 및 건물 파손을 방지하기 위해 주어진 형상에 대한 레이저 스캐닝 경로를 조정하기 위해 개발되었습니다.

연속 및 아일랜드 스캐닝 전략을 위한 기울기 기반 경로 계획이 공식화되고 공식화된 컴플라이언스 및 스트레스 최소화 문제에 대한 전체 감도 분석이 수행됩니다. 이 제안된 경로 계획 방법의 타당성과 효율성은 AconityONE L-PBF 시스템을 사용하여 실험적으로 입증되었습니다.

또한 기계 학습을 활용한 데이터 기반 프레임워크를 개발하여 L-PBF에 대한 부품 규모의 열 이력을 예측합니다. 본 연구에서는 실시간 열 이력 예측을 위해 CNN(Convolutional Neural Network)과 RNN(Recurrent Neural Network)을 포함하는 순차적 기계 학습 모델을 제안합니다.

유한 요소 해석과 비교하여 100배의 예측 속도 향상이 달성되어 실제 제작 프로세스보다 빠른 예측이 가능하고 실시간 온도 프로파일을 사용할 수 있습니다.

Laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) is capable of producing complex parts near net shape with good mechanical properties. However, undesired residual stress and distortion that lead to build failure and defects such as porosity are preventing broader applications of L-PBF. To realize the full potential of L-PBF, a multiscale modeling methodology is developed to predict residual deformation, melt pool, and porosity formation. To predict the residual deformation and stress in L-PBF at part-scale, a multiscale process modeling framework based on inherent strain method is proposed.

Inherent strain vectors are extracted from detailed multi-layer process simulation with high fidelity at micro-scale. Uniform but anisotropic strains are then applied to L-PBF part in a layer-by-layer fashion in a quasi-static equilibrium finite element analysis (FEA) to predict residual distortion and stress. Besides residual distortion and stress prediction at part scale, multiphysics modeling at powder scale is performed to study the melt pool variation and defect formation induced by process parameters, preheating temperature and spattering particles. Melt pool dynamics and porosity formation mechanisms associated with these factors are revealed through simulation and experiments.

Based on the proposed part-scale residual stress and distortion model, path planning method is developed to tailor the laser scanning path for a given geometry to prevent large residual deformation and building failures. Gradient based path planning for continuous and island scanning strategy is formulated and full sensitivity analysis for the formulated compliance- and stress-minimization problem is performed.

The feasibility and effectiveness of this proposed path planning method is demonstrated experimentally using the AconityONE L-PBF system. In addition, a data-driven framework utilizing machine learning is developed to predict the thermal history at part-scale for L-PBF.

In this work, a sequential machine learning model including convolutional neural network (CNN) and recurrent neural network (RNN), long shortterm memory unit, is proposed for real-time thermal history prediction. A 100x prediction speed improvement is achieved compared to the finite element analysis which makes the prediction faster than real fabrication process and real-time temperature profile available.

Figure 1.1: Schematic Overview of Metal Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process [2]

Figure 1.2: Commercial Powder Bed Fusion Systems

Figure 1.3: Commercial Metal Components Fabricated by Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: (a) GE Fuel Nozzle; (b) Stryker Hip Biomedical Implant.

Figure 2.1: Proposed Multiscale Process Simulation Framework

Figure 2.2: (a) Experimental Setup for In-situ Thermocouple Measurement in the EOS M290 Build Chamber; (b) Themocouple Locations on the Bottom Side of the Substrate.

Figure 2.3: (a) Finite Element Model for Single Layer Thermal Analysis; (b) Deposition Layer

Figure 2.4: Core-skin layer: (a) Surface Morphology; (b) Scanning Strategy; (c) Transient Temperature Distribution and Temperature History at (d) Point 1; (e) Point 2 and (f) Point 3

Figure 2.5: (a) Scanning Orientation of Each Layer; (b) Finite Element Model for Micro-scale Representative Volume

Figure 2.6: Bottom Layer (a) Thermal History; (b) Plastic Strain and (c) Elastic Strain Evolution History

Figure 2.7: Bottom Layer Inherent Strain under Default Process Parameters along Horizontal Scanning Path

Figure 2.8: Snapshots of the Element Activation Process

Figure 2.9: Double Cantilever Beam Structure Built by the EOS M290 DMLM Process (a) Before and (b) After Cutting off; (c) Faro Laser ScanArm V3 for Distortion Measurement

Figure 2.10: Square Canonical Structure Built by the EOS M290 DMLM Process

Figure 2.11: Finite Element Mesh for the Square Canonical and Snapshots of Element Activation Process

Figure 2.12: Simulated Distortion Field for the Double Cantilever Beam before Cutting off the Supports: (a) Inherent Strain Method; (b) Simufact Additive 3.1

Figure 3.10: Snapshots of Temperature Profile for Single Track in Keyhole Regime (P = 250W and V = 0.5m/s) at the Preheating Temperature of 100 °C

s) at the Preheating Temperature of 500 °C

Figure 3.15: Melt Pool Cross Section Comparison Between Simulation and Experiment for Single Track

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