Minxi Zhanga,b, Hanyan Zhaoc, Dongliang Zhao d, Shaolin Yuee, Huan Zhoue,Xudong Zhaoa , Carlo Gualtierif, Guoliang Yua,b,โ a SKLOE, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China b KLMIES, MOE, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China c Guangdong Research Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower, Guangzhou 510610, China d CCCC Second Harbor Engineering Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430040, China e CCCC Road & Bridge Special Engineering Co., Ltd, Wuhan 430071, China f Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Abstract
Local scour at a pile or pier in current or wave environments threats the safety of the upper structure all over the world. The application of a net-like matt as a scour protection cover at the pile or pier was proposed. The matt weakens and diffuses the flow in the local scour pit and thus reduces local scour while enhances sediment deposition. Numerical simulations were carried out to investigate the flow at the pile covered by the matt. The simulation results were used to optimize the thickness dt (2.6d95 โผ 17.9d95) and opening size dn (7.7d95 โผ 28.2d95) of the matt. It was found that the matt significantly reduced the local velocity and dissipated the vortex at the pile, substantially reduced the extent of local scour. The smaller the opening size of the matt, the more effective was the flow diffusion at the bed, and smaller bed shear stress was observed at the pile. For the flow conditions considered in this study, a matt with a relative thickness of T = 7.7 and relative opening size of S = 7.7 could be effective in scour protection.
Fig. 2. Local scour pit of pile below the protection matt.
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Kaiqiย Yuย a,ย Eldaย Miramontesย bc,ย Matthieu J.B.ย Cartignyย d,ย Yupingย Yangย a,ย Jingpingย Xuย a aDepartment of Ocean Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, 1088 Xueyuan Rd., Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China bMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germanyc Faculty of Geosciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany dDepartment of Geography, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
Received 10 August 2023, Revised 13 March 2024, Accepted 13 March 2024, Available online 17 March 2024, Version of Record 20 March 2024.
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โขThe impact of submarine canyon concavity on turbidite deposition was assessed.
โขDistribution of turbidite deposits varies with changes in canyon concavity.
โขThree distinct deposition patterns were identified.
โขThe recognized deposition patterns align well with the observed turbidite deposits.
Abstract
Submarine canyons are primary conduits for turbidity currents transporting terrestrial sediments, nutrients, pollutants and organic carbon to the deep sea. The concavity in the longitudinal profile of these canyons (i.e. the downstream flattening rate along the profiles) influences the transport processes and results in variations in turbidite thickness, impacting the transfer and burial of particles. To better understand the controlling mechanisms of canyon concavity on the distribution of turbidite deposits, here we investigate the variation in sediment accumulation as a function of canyon concavity of 20 different modern submarine canyons, distributed on global continental margins. In order to effectively assess the isolated impact of the concavity of 20 different canyons, a series of two-dimensional, depth-resolved numerical simulations are conducted. Simulation results show that the highly concave profile (e.g. Surveyor and Horizon) tends to concentrate the turbidite deposits mainly at the slope break, while nearly straight profiles (e.g. Amazon and Congo) result in deposition focused at the canyon head. Moderately concave profiles with a smoother canyon floor (e.g. Norfolk-Washington and Mukluk) effectively facilitate the downstream transport of suspended sediments in turbidity currents. Furthermore, smooth and steep upper reaches of canyons commonly contribute to sediment bypass (i.e. Mukluk and Chirikof), while low slope angles lead to deposition at upper reaches (i.e. Bounty and Valencia). At lower reaches, the distribution of turbidite deposits is consistent with the occurrence of hydraulic jumps. Under the influence of different canyon concavities, three types of deposition patterns are inferred in this study, and verified by comparison with observed turbidite deposits on the modern or paleo-canyon floor. This study demonstrates a potential difference in sediment transport efficiency of submarine canyons with different concavities, which has potential consequences for sediment and organic carbon transport through submarine canyons.
Introduction
Submarine canyons are pivotal links in source-to-sink systems on continental margins (Sรธmme et al., 2009; Nyberg et al., 2018; Pope et al., 2022a, Pope et al., 2022b) that provide efficient pathways for moving prodigious volumes of terrestrial materials to the abyssal basin (Spychala et al., 2020; Heijnen et al., 2022). When turbidity currents, the main force that transports the above mentioned sediments (Xu et al., 2004; Xu, 2010; Talling et al., 2013; Stevenson et al., 2015), slow down after entering a flatter and/or wider stretch of the canyon downstream, the laden sediments settle, often rapidly, to form a deposit called turbidite that is known for organic carbon burial, hydrocarbon reserves and the accumulation of microplastics (Galy et al., 2007; Pohl et al., 2020a; Pope et al., 2022b; Pierdomenico et al., 2023). A set of flume experiments by Pohl et al. (2020b) revealed that the variation of bed slope plays a dominant role in controlling the sizes and locations of the deposit: a) a more gently dipping upper slope leads to upstream migration of upslope pinch-out; b) the increase of lower slope results in a decrease of the deposit thickness (Fig. 1a).
From upper continental slopes to deepwater basins, turbidity currents are commonly confined by submarine canyons that facilitate the longer distance transport of sediments (Eggenhuisen et al., 2022; Pope et al., 2022a; Wahab et al., 2022, Li et al., 2023a). The concavity, defined here as the downstream flattening rate of profiles (Covault et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2019; Seybold et al., 2021; Soutter et al., 2021a), of the longitudinal bed profile of the submarine canyons is therefore a key factor that determines hydrodynamic processes of turbidity currents, including the accumulation of sediments along the canyon thalweg (Covault et al., 2014; de Leeuw et al., 2016; Heerema et al., 2022; Heijnen et al., 2022). Due to the comprehensive impacts of sediment supply, grain size, climate change, regional tectonics, associated river and self-incision, the concavity of submarine canyons on global continental margins varies greatly (Parker et al., 1986; Harris and Whiteway, 2011; Casalbore et al., 2018; Nyberg et al., 2018; Soutter et al., 2021a, Li et al., 2023b), which is much more complex than the two constant slope setup of Pohl et al. (2020b)โs flume experiment (Fig. 1a). This raises the question of how the more complex concavity influences the dynamics of turbidity currents and the resultant distribution of turbidite deposits. For instance, the longitudinal profile concavity can also be increased by steepening the upper slope and/or gentling the lower slope of canyons (Fig. 1b). Parameters, known as significant factors influencing flow dynamics, include dip angle (Pohl et al., 2019), bed roughness (Baghalian and Ghodsian, 2020), obstacle presence (Howlett et al., 2019), and confinement conditions (Soutter et al., 2021b). However, the role of channel concavity in determining the downstream evolution of flow dynamics remains poorly understood (Covault et al., 2011; Georgiopoulou and Cartwright, 2013), and it is still unclear whether changes in concavity can result in different locations of pinch-out points and variations in turbidite deposit thicknesses (Pohl et al., 2020b).
In this study, we hypothesize that a more concave profile resulting from a steeper upper slope and a gentler lower slope may lead to a downstream migration of the upslope pinch-out and an increase of deposit thickness (Fig. 1b). This hypothesis is tested in 20 modern submarine canyons (shown in Fig. 2) whose longitudinal profiles are extracted from the GEBCO_2022 grid. Due to the lack of data describing the turbidite thickness trends in these canyons, we used a numerical model (FLOW-3Dยฎ software) to simulate the depositional process. The simulation results allow us to address at least two questions: (1) How does the concavity affect the distribution and thickness of turbidite deposits along the canyon thalwegs? (2) What is the impact of canyon concavity on the dynamics of the turbidity currents? Such answers on a global scale are undoubtedly helpful in understanding not only the sediment transport processes but also the efficient transfer and burial of organic carbon along global continental margins.
Section snippets
Submarine canyons used in this study
The longitudinal profiles of 20 modern submarine canyons are obtained using Global Mapperยฎ from a public domain database GEBCO_2022 (doi:https://doi.org/10.5285/e0f0bb80-ab44-2739-e053-6c86abc0289c). The GEBCO_2022 grid provides elevation data, in meters, on a 15 arc-second interval grid. The 20 selected submarine canyons, which span the typical distance covered by turbidity currents, have been chosen from a diverse range of submarine canyon and channel systems that extend at least 250 km
Concavity of longitudinal canyon profiles
The NCI and ฮฑ values of all 20 canyon profiles utilized in this study are plotted in Fig. 4, indicating the majority of these submarine canyons typically exhibit a concave profile, characterized by a negative NCI, except for the Amazon. In most of the profiles, the NCI is lower than โ0.08, with the most concave point (indicated by the minimum ratio ฮฑ) located closer to the canyon head than to the profile end, and their upper reaches are steeper than lower reaches, typically observed as the
Validation of the hypothesis
As previously mentioned in this paper, one of the primary objectives of this study is to evaluate the hypothesis inferred from the flume tank experiment of Pohl et al. (2020b): whether a more concave canyon profile can exert a comparable influence on turbidite deposits as the steepness of the lower and upper slopes in a slope-break system (Fig. 1). Shown as the modeling results, the deposition pattern of this study is more โirregularโ compared with the flume tank experiment (Pohl et al., 2020b
Conclusion
Based on global bathymetry, this study simulates the depositional behavior of turbidity currents flowing through the 20 different submarine canyons on the margins of open ocean and marginal sea. Influenced by the different concavities, the resulted deposition patterns are characterized by a variable distribution of turbidite deposits.
1)The simulation results demonstrate that the accumulation of turbidite deposits is primarily observed in downstream regions near the slope break for highly concave
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by the Shenzhen Natural Science Foundation (JCYJ20210324105211031). Matthieu J. B. Cartigny was supported by Royal Society Research Fellowship (DHF/R1/180166). We thank the Chief Editor Zhongyuan Chen, the associate editor and two reviewers for their constructive comments that helped us improve our manuscript.
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Alireza Khoshkonesh1, Blaise Nsom2, Saeid Okhravi3*, Fariba Ahmadi Dehrashid4, Payam Heidarian5, Silvia DiFrancesco6 1 Department of Geography, School of Social Sciences, History, and Philosophy, Birkbeck University of London, London, UK. 2 Universitรฉ de Bretagne Occidentale. IRDL/UBO UMR CNRS 6027. Rue de Kergoat, 29285 Brest, France. 3 Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dรบbravskรก cesta 9, 84104, Bratislava, Slovak Republic. 4Department of Water Science and Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Bu-Ali Sina University, 65178-38695, Hamedan, Iran. 5 Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy. 6Niccol`o Cusano University, via Don C. Gnocchi 3, 00166 Rome, Italy. * Corresponding author. Tel.: +421-944624921. E-mail: saeid.okhravi@savba.sk
Abstract
This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the influence of substrate level difference and material composition on dam break wave evolution over two different erodible beds. Utilizing the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method, we tracked free surface advection and reproduced wave evolution using experimental data from the literature. For model validation, a comprehensive sensitivity analysis encompassed mesh resolution, turbulence simulation methods, and bed load transport equations. The implementation of Large Eddy Simulation (LES), non-equilibrium sediment flux, and van Rijnโs (1984) bed load formula yielded higher accuracy compared to alternative approaches. The findings emphasize the significant effect of substrate level difference and material composition on dam break morphodynamic characteristics. Decreasing substrate level disparity led to reduced flow velocity, wavefront progression, free surface height, substrate erosion, and other pertinent parameters. Initial air entrapment proved substantial at the wavefront, illustrating pronounced air-water interaction along the bottom interface. The Shields parameter experienced a one-third reduction as substrate level difference quadrupled, with the highest near-bed concentration observed at the wavefront. This research provides fresh insights into the complex interplay of factors governing dam break wave propagation and morphological changes, advancing our comprehension of this intricate phenomenon.
Fig. 3. Free surface and substrate profiles in all Sp and Ls cases at t = 1 s, t = 3 s, and t = 5 s, arranged left to right (note: the colour contours
correspond to the horizontal component of the flow velocity (u), expressed in m/s).
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Abstract: The reservoir silting is one of the main problems for sustainable development in the generation of hydroelectric energy and it is of great significance for Brazil. The main source of energy in Brazil comes from hydroelectric power plant. The Small Hydroelectric Power Plant (SHP) are an important alternative for complementary generation of renewable energy. Seeking to optimize the design, construction, operation, and repowering of these, it is extremely important to study the hydrodynamics and transport of sediments in their reservoirs. Threedimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics – CFD 3D modeling is the most appropriate method for complex flow problems. The proposed method aims to reproduce and evaluate the hydrodynamic and sediment transport phenomena of the PCH Salto Paraopeba, located in the municipality of Jeceaba, MG, which stopped working due to the complete silting up of its water intake. The validation of the model will be done using experimental data from the reduced physical model, built at the Hydraulic Research Center (CPH) at the Federal University of Minas Gerais.
Keywords
ํด์ ๋ฌผ ์์ก, ๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์ ๋ชจ๋ธ, ์๊ท๋ชจ ์๋ ฅ ๋ฐ์ ์, Sediment transport, physical model, Small Hydroelectric Power Plant.
Figura 1 โ Mapa de localizaรงรฃo da PCH Salto ParaopebaFigura 2 โ PCH Salto Paraopeba e modelo reduzido.
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ANEEL, SIGA – Sistema de Informaรงรตes de Geraรงรฃo da ANEEL. Disponรญvel em: . Acesso em 10 de maio de 2023.
CAMPELLO, B.S.C. โEstudo Da Velocidade de Queda e do Inรญcio do Movimento das Partรญculas de Borracha e Areiaโ. Dissertaรงรฃo de Mestrado. Programa de Pรณs-Graduaรงรฃo em Saneamento, Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hรญdricos. UFMG, Belo Horizonte /MG, 2017.
CAMPOS, A.S. โA Importรขncia do Coeficiente de Rugosidade de Manning na Avaliaรงรฃo Numรฉrica do Assoreamento de Reservatรณrios A Fio Dโรกguaโ. Dissertaรงรฃo de Mestrado. Programa de PรณsGraduaรงรฃo em Saneamento, Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hรญdricos. UFMG, Belo Horizonte /MG, 2018.
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SOARES, W.S. โTaxa de Assoreamento no Reservatรณrio da Usina Hidrelรฉtrica do Funil, MGโ. Dissertaรงรฃo de Mestrado. Programa de Pรณs-Graduaรงรฃo em Tecnologias e Inovaรงรตes Ambientais. UFLA, Lavras/MG, 2015.
Submarine sediment flows is one of the main means for transporting sediment to the deep sea, often traveling long-distance and transporting significant volumes of sediment for tens or even hundreds of kilometers. Its strong destructive force often causes serious damage to submarine utilities on its course of movement. The sediment concentration of the sediment flow determines its density difference with the ambient seawater, and this density difference determines the flow ability of the sediment flow, and thus affects the final deposition locations of the transported sediment. In this paper, sediment flows of different sediment concentration with various silt and clay weight ratios (referred to as silt/clay ratio) are studied using flume tests. Our test results indicate that there is a critical sediment concentration at which sediment flows travel the fastest for a specific sediment composition. The critical sediment concentrations and their corresponding maximum velocities for each of the four silt/clay ratios are obtained. The results further indicate that the clay content is linearly negatively correlated with the critical sediment concentration. As the sediment concentration increases, the flow behaviors of sediment flows transform from the flow state to the collapsed state, and the fluid properties of the two turbid suspensions with changing flow behaviors are both Bingham fluids. Additionally, this paper also provides a microscopic explanation of the above-mentioned results by analyzing the arrangement of particles within the sediment flow.
Introduction
Submarine sediment flows are important carriers for sea floor sediment movement and may carry and transport significant volumes of sediment for tens or even hundreds of kilometers (Prior et al., 1987; Pirmez and Imran, 2003; Zhang et al., 2018). Earthquakes, storms, and floods may all trigger submarine sediment flow events (Hsu et al., 2008; Piper and Normark, 2009; Pope et al., 2017b; Gavey et al., 2017). Sediment flows have strong forces during the movement, which will cause great harm to submarine structures such as cables and pipelines (Pope et al., 2017a). It was first confirmed that the cable breaking event caused by the sediment flow occurred in 1929. The sediment flow triggered by the Grand Banks earthquake damaged 12 cables. According to the time sequence of the cable breaking, the maximum velocity of the sediment flow is as high as 28 m/s (Heezen and Ewing, 1952; Kuenen, 1952; Heezen et al., 1954). Subsequent research shows that the lowest turbidity velocity that can break the cable also needs to reach 19 m/s (Piper et al., 1988). Since then, there have been many damage events of submarine cables and oil and gas pipelines caused by sediment flows in the world (Hsu et al., 2008; Carter et al., 2012; Cattaneo et al., 2012; Carter et al., 2014). During its movement, the sediment flow will gradually deposit a large amount of sediment carried by it along the way, that is, the deposition process of the sediment flow. On the one hand, this process brings a large amount of terrestrial nutrients and other materials to the ocean, while on the other hand, it causes damage and burial to benthic organisms, thus forming the largest sedimentary accumulation on Earth – submarine fans, which are highly likely to become good reservoirs for oil and gas resources (Daly, 1936; Yuan et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2022). The study on sediment flows (such as, the study of flow velocity and the forces acting on seabed structures) can provide important references for the safe design of seabed structures, the protection of submarine ecosystems, and exploration of turbidity sediments related oil and gas deposits. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the movement of sediment flows.
The sediment flow, as a highly sediment-concentrated fluid flowing on the sea floor, has a dense bottom layer and a dilute turbulent cloud. Observations at the Monterey Canyon indicated that the sediment flow can maintain its movement over long distances if its bottom has a relatively high sediment concentration. This dense bottom layer can be very destructive along its movement path to any facilities on the sea floor (Paull et al., 2018; Heerema et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). The sediment flow mentioned in this research paper is the general term of sediment density flow.
The sediment flow, which occurs on the seafloor, has the potential to cause erosion along its path. In this process, the suspended sediment is replenished, allowing the sediment flow to maintain its continuous flow capacity (Zhao et al., 2018). The dynamic force of sediment flow movement stem from its own gravity and density difference with surrounding water. In cases that the gravity drive of the slope is absent (on a flat sea floor), the flow velocity and distance of sediment flows are essentially determined by the sediment composition and concentration of the sediment flows as previous studies have demonstrated. Ilstad et al. (2004) conducted underwater flow tests in a sloped tank and employed high speed video camera to perform particle tracking. The results indicated that the premixed sand-rich and clay-rich slurries demonstrated different flow velocity and flow behavior. Using mixed kaolinite(d50 = 6 ฮผm) and silica flour(d50 = 9 ฮผm) in three compositions with total volumetric concentration ranged 22% or 28%, Felix and Peakall (2006) carried out underwater flow tests in a 5ยฐ slope Perspex channel and found that the flow ability of sediment flows is different depending on sediment compositions and concentrations. Sumner et al. (2009) used annular flume experiments to investigate the depositional dynamics and deposits of waning sediment-laden flows, finding that decelerating fast flows with fixed sand content and variable mud content resulted in four different deposit types. Chowdhury and Testik (2011) used lock-exchange tank, and experimented the kaolin clay sediment flows in the concentration range of 25โ350 g/L, and predicted the fluid mud sediment flows propagation characteristics, but this study focused on giving sediment flows propagate phase transition time parameters, and is limited to clay. Lv et al. (2017) found through experiments that the rheological properties and flow behavior of kaolin clay (d50 = 3.7 ฮผm) sediment flows were correlated to clay concentrations. In the field monitoring conducted by Liu et al. (2023) at the Manila Trench in the South China Sea in 2021, significant differences in the velocity, movement distance, and flow morphology of turbidity currents were observed. These differences may be attributed to variations in the particle composition of the turbidity currents.
On low and gentle slopes, although sediment flow with sand as the main sediment composition moves faster, it is difficult to propagate over long distances because sand has greater settling velocity and subaqueous angle of repose. Whereas the sediment flows with silt and clay as main composition may maintain relatively stable currents. Although its movement speed is slow, it has the ability to propagate over long distances because of the low settling rate of the fine particles (Ilstad et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2023). In a field observation at the Gaoping submarine canyon, the sediments collected from the sediment flows exhibited grain size gradation and the sediment was mostly composed of silt and clay (Liu et al., 2012). At the largest deltas in the world, for instance, the Mississippi River Delta, the sediments are mainly composed of silt and clay, which generally distributed along the coast in a wide range and provided the sediment sources for further distribution. The sediment flows originated and transported sediment from the coast to the deep sea are therefore share the same sediment compositions as delta sediments. To study the sediment flows composed of silt and clay is of great importance.
The sediment concentration of the sediment flows determines the density difference between the sediment flows and the ambient water and plays a key role in its flow ability. For the sediment flow with sediment composed of silt and clay, low sediment concentration means low density and therefore leads to low flow ability; however, although high sediment concentration results in high density, since there is cohesion between fine particles, it changes fluid properties and leads to low flow ability as well. Therefore, there should be a critical sediment concentration with mixed composition of silt and clay, at which the sediment flow maintains its strongest flow capacity and have the highest movement speed. In other words, the two characteristics of particle diameter and concentration of the sediment flow determine its own motion ability, which, if occurs, may become the most destructive force to submarine structures.
The objectives of this work was to study how the sediment composition (measured in relative weight of silt and clay, and referred as silt/clay ratio) and sediment concentration affect flow ability and behavior of the sediment flows, and to quantify the critical sediment concentration at which the sediment flows reached the greatest flow velocity under the experiment setting. We used straight flume without slope and conducted a series of flume tests with varying sediment compositions (silt-rich or clay-rich) and concentrations (96 to 1212 g/L). Each sediment flow sample was tested and analyzed for rheological properties using a rheometer, in order to characterize the relationship between flow behavior and rheological properties. Combined with the particle diameter, density and viscosity characteristics of the sediment flows measured in the experiment, a numerical modeling study is conducted, which are mutually validated with the experimental results.
The sediment concentration determines the arrangements of the sediment particles in the turbid suspension, and the arrangement impacts the fluid properties of the turbid suspension. The microscopic mode of particle arrangement in the turbid suspension can be constructed to further analyze the relationship between the fluid properties of turbid suspension and the flow behaviors of the sediment flow, and then characterize the critical sediment concentration at which the sediment flow runs the fastest. A simplified microscopic model of particle arrangement in turbid suspension was constructed to analyze the microscopic arrangement characteristics of sediment particles in turbid suspension with the fastest velocity.
Section snippets
Equipment and materials
The sediment flows flow experiments were performed in a Perspex channel with smooth transparent walls. The layout and dimensions of the experimental set-up were shown in Fig. 1. The bottom of the channel was flat and straight, and a gate was arranged to separate the two tanks. In order to study the flow capacity of turbidity currents from the perspective of their own composition (particle size distribution and concentration), we used a straight channel instead of an inclined one, to avoid any
Relationship between sediment flow flow velocity and sediment concentration
After the sediment flow is generated, its movement in the first half (50 cm) of the channel is relatively stable, and there is obvious shock diffusion in the second half. The reason is that the excitation wave (similar to the surge) will be formed during the sediment flow movement, and its speed is much faster than the speed of the sediment flow head. When the excitation wave reaches the tail of the channel, it will be reflected, thus affecting the subsequent flow of the sediment flow.
Sediment flows motion simulation based on FLOW-3D
As a relatively mature 3D fluid simulation software, FLOW-3D can accurately predict the free surface flow, and has been used to simulate the movement process of sediment flows for many times (Heimsund, 2007). The model adopted in this paper is RNG turbulence model, which can better deal with the flow with high strain rate and is suitable for the simulation of sediment flows with variable shape during movement. The governing equations of the numerical model involved include continuity equation,
Conclusions
In this study, we conducted a series of sediment flow flume tests with mixed silt and clay sediment samples in four silt/clay ratios on a flat slope. Rheological measurements were carried out on turbid suspension samples and microstructure analysis of the sediment particle arrangements was conducted, we concluded that:
(1)The flow velocity of the sediment flow is controlled by the sediment concentration and its own particle diameter composition, the flow velocity increased with the increase of the
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant no. 42206055]; the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant no. 41976049]; and the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant no. 42272327].
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Fine sediments enter into the river through various sources such as channel bed, bank, and catchment. It has been regarded as a type of pollution in river. Fine sediments present in a river have a significant effect on river health. Benthic micro-organism, plants, and large fishes, all are part of food chain of river biota. Any detrimental effect on any of these components of food chain misbalances the entire riverine ecosystem. Numerous studies have been carried out on the various environmental aspects of rivers considering the presence of fine sediment in river flow. The present paper critically reviews many of these aspects to understand the various environmental impacts of suspended sediment on river health, flora and fauna.
Introduction The existence of fine sediment in a river system is a natural phenomenon. But in many cases it is exacerbated by the manmade activities. The natural cause of fines being in flow generally keeps the whole system in equilibrium except during some calamites whereas anthropogenic activities leading to fines entering into the flow puts several adverse impacts on the entire river system and its ecology. Presence of fines in flow is considered as a type of pollution in water. In United States, the fine sediment in water along with other non point source pollution is considered as a major obstacle in providing quality water for fishes and recreation activities (Diplas and Parker 1985). Sediments in a river are broadly of two types, organic and inorganic, and they both move in two ways either along the bed of the channel called bed load or in suspension called suspended load and their movements depend upon fluid flow and sediment characteristics. Further many investigators have divided the materials in suspension into two different types. One which originates from channel bed and bank is called bed material suspended load and another that migrates from feeding catchment area is called wash load. A general perception is that wash loads are very fine materials like clay, silt but it may not always be true (Woo et al. 1986). In general, suspended materials are of size less than 2 mm. The impact of sand on the various aspects of river is comparatively less than that of silt and clay. The latter are chemically active and good carrier of many contaminants and nutrients such as dioxins, phosphorous, heavy and trace metals, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), radionuclide, etc. (Foster and Charlesworth 1996; Horowitz et al. 1995; Owens et al. 2001; Salomons and Fรถrstner 1984; Stone and Droppo 1994; Thoms 1987). Foy and Bailey-Watt (1998) reported that out of 129 lakes in England and Wales, 69% have phosphorous contamination. Ten percent lakes, rivers, and bays of United States have sediment contaminants with chemicals as reported by USEPA. Several field and experimental studies have been conducted considering, sand, silt, and clay as suspended material. Hence, the subject reported herein is based on considering the fine sediment size smaller than 2 mm. Fine sediments have the ability to alter the hydraulics of the flow. Presence of fines in flow can change the magnitude of turbulence, it can change the friction resistance to flow. Fines can change the mobility and permeability of the bed material. In some extreme cases, fines in flow may even change the morphology of the river (Doeg and Koehn 1994; Nuttall 1972; Wright and Berrie 1987). Fines in the flow adversely affect the producer by increasing the turbidity, hindering the photosynthesis process by limiting the light penetration. This is ultimately reflected in the entire food ecosystem of river (Davis-Colley et al. 1992; Van Niewenhuyre and Laparrieve 1986). In addition, abrasion due to flowing sediment kills the aquatic flora (Edwards 1969; Brookes 1986). Intrusion of fines into the pores of river bed reduces space for several invertebrates, affects the spawning process (Petts 1984; Richards and Bacon 1994; Schalchli 1992). There are several other direct or indirect, short-term or long-term impacts of fines in river. The present paper reports the physical/environmental significance of fines in river. The hydraulic significance of presence of fines in the river has been reviewed in another paper (Effect of fine sediments on river hydraulics โ a research review – http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09715010.2014.982001).
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Fig. 26. Distribution of the turbulent kinetic energy on the y-z plane (X = 0.5) for various S
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Pages 541-551 | Received 03 Mar 2020, Accepted 07 May 2020, Published online: 21 May 2020
ABSTRACT
Dams fall in โinstallations containing dangerous forcesโ because of their massive impact on the environment and civilian life and property as per International humanitarian law. As such, it becomes vital for hydraulic engineers to refurbish various solutions for dam rehabilitation. This paper presents a review of a new type of weir installation called Piano Key Weir (PKW), which is becoming popular around the world for its higher spillway capacity both for existing and new dam spillway installations. This paper reviews the geometry along with structural integrity, discharging capacity, economic aspects, aeration requirements, sediment transport and erosion aspects of Piano Key Weir (PKW) as compared with other traditional spillway structures and alternatives from literature. The comparison with other alternatives shows PKW to be an excellent alternative for dam risk mitigation owing to its high spillway capabilities and economy, along with its use in both existing and new hydraulic structures.
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As proposed by Hunt,[11] a value of ฮฆโค0.66ฮฆโค0.66 pct represents fully columnar epitaxial growth condition, and, conversely, a value of ฮฆโฅ49ฮฆโฅ49 pct indicates that the initial single crystal microstructure is fully replaced by an equiaxed microstructure. To calculate the overall stray grain area fraction, we followed Vitekโs method by dividing the FZ into roughly 19 to 28 discrete parts (depending on the length of the melt pool) of equal length from the point of maximum width to the end of melt pool along the x direction. The values of G and vTvT were determined at the center on the melt pool boundary of each section and these values were used to represent the entire section. The area-weighted average of ฮฆฮฆ over these discrete sections along the length of melt pool is designated as ฮฆยฏยฏยฏยฏฮฆยฏ, and is given by:
ฮฆยฏยฏยฏยฏ=โkAkฮฆkโkAk,ฮฆยฏ=โkAkฮฆkโkAk,
(6)
where k is the index for each subsection, and AkAk and ฮฆkฮฆk are the areas and ฮฆฮฆ values for each subsection. The summation is taken over all the sections along the melt pool. Vitekโs improved model allows the calculation of stray grain area fraction by considering the melt pool geometry and variations of G and vTvT around the tail end of the pool.
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The long-distance movement of turbidity currents in submarine canyons can transport large amounts of sediment to deep-sea plains. Previous studies show obvious differences in the turbidity current velocities derived from the multiple cables damage events ranging from 5.9 to 28.0 m/s and those of field observations between 0.15 and 7.2 m/s. Therefore, questions remain regarding whether a turbid fluid in an undersea environment can flow through a submarine canyon for a long distance at a high speed. A new model based on weakly stable sediment is proposed (proposed failure propagation model for weakly stable sediments, WSS-PFP model for short) to explain the high-speed and long-range motion of turbidity currents in submarine canyons through the combination of laboratory tests and numerical analogs. The model is based on two mechanisms: 1) the original turbidity current triggers the destabilization of the weakly stable sediment bed and promotes the destabilization and transport of the soft sediment in the downstream direction and 2) the excitation wave that forms when the original turbidity current moves into the canyon leads to the destabilization and transport of the weakly stable sediment in the downstream direction. The proposed model will provide dynamic process interpretation for the study of deep-sea deposition, pollutant transport, and optical cable damage.
Keyword
turbidity current
excitation wave
dense basal layer
velocity
WSS-PFP model
References
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We thank Hanru WU from Ocean University of China for his help in thesis writing, and Hao TIAN and Chenxi WANG from Ocean University of China for their helps in the preparation of the experimental materials. Guohui XU is responsible for the development of the initial concept, processing of test data, and management of coauthor contributions to the paper; Yupeng REN for the experiment setup and drafting of the paper; Yi ZHANG and Xingbei XU for the simulation part of the experiment; Houjie WANG for writing guidance; Zhiyuan CHEN for the experiment setup.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Geological Engineering, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYupeng Ren, Yi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu & Zhiyuan Chen
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Geological Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYupeng Ren & Houjie Wang
Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao, 266100, ChinaYi Zhang, Guohui Xu, Xingbei Xu & Zhiyuan Chen
Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41976049, 41720104001) and the Taishan Scholar Project of Shandong Province (No. TS20190913), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 202061028)
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Intrpduction: The need to control floods and their dangers is not hidden from anyone. In addition, a wide range of economic, social and environmental issues are affected by this phenomenon. The first step in the design and optimal management of flood control methods is the correct identification of river behavior during floods. In most river engineering projects such as flood routing, determining the bed and river area, etc., calculating the average values of hydraulic parameters of the river section is sufficient. Today, the use of numerical and analytical methods in the study of fluid environment have grown and developed. Due to the production of reliable results, they have been able to be a good alternative to physical models. Today, with the rapid development of numerical models and increasing the speed of computer calculations, the use of 3D numerical models is preferred and also due to the fact that measuring the velocity distribution and shear stress in rivers is very time consuming and expensive, the results of 3D numerical models It will be valuable. On the other hand, the present studies show that comprehensive numerical research using FLOW-3D model has not been performed on composite sections, so a suitable ground for research is provided. Therefore, the innovation of the present study is the numerical study of the effects of parameters such as roughness on the status and hydraulic performance of the flow in non-prismatic composite sections, which are accompanied by divergent and convergent floodplains, which have received less attention numerically.
Methodology: Younesi (2013) research has been used to validate the results of numerical simulation. In these experiments, first the hydraulic flow in composite prismatic and non-prismatic sections with fixed bed was examined and then, while maintaining the conditions, sediment transfer experiments were performed in prismatic and non-prismatic mode. The experiments were performed in a research channel 15 meters long. This canal is a composite canal with two symmetrical floodplains with a width of 400 mm with a flow rate that can be provided for recirculation in the system of 250 liters per second and a longitudinal slope of 0.0088 000. The depth of the main canal to the edge of the floodplain is equal to 0.18 meters and the width of the main canal is equal to 0.4 meters (Figure 1). In order to roughen the bed and walls of the main canal, sediments with an average diameter of 0.65 mm have been used and at each stage, the walls and bed of floodplains have been roughened by sediments with an average diameter of 0.65, 1.3 and 1.78 (mm). A triangular overflow is used to measure the inflow to the canal, upstream of the canal. In order to measure the flow velocity in experiments with relative depth of 0.15 and 0.25, a micromolina with a diameter of 14 mm and in experiments with relative depth of 0.35, a three-dimensional speedometer (ADV) was used. The water level was also taken by depth gauges with an accuracy of 0.1 mm. Result and Diccussion: In the present study, in order to validate the numerical model of water surface profile, average depth velocity distribution and boundary shear stress in the three sections at the beginning, middle and end of the divergence zone) in experiments 0.25-2-11.3-NP and 0.25-2-5.7-NP and Also, the 0.25-2-2 P test of the prismatic composite section has been evaluated. In Table (1) the values of RMSE and NRMSE indices related to the P.20-2-2-P test of the prismatic composite section, and also in Table (2) the values of the RMSE and NRMSE indices in the experiments 11.3-2-0.25-NP and -0.25. 2-5.7-NP is provided. The results related to the validation of the average depth velocity of the experiments 0.25-2-5.7- NP-11.3-2-0.25, NP and P.2.0-2-2-P are shown. In 0.25-2-5.7-NP experiment, the amount of NRMSE in elementary, middle and final grades was calculated to be 5.7, 11.8 and 10.3%, respectively, which is in the excellent grade in the elementary grade and good in the middle and final grades. Placed. As can be seen, the RMSE values are calculated as 0.026, 0.037 and 0.026, respectively. In the experiment 11.3-2-0.25, NP, the NRMSE values in the primary, middle and final levels were calculated as 7, 11.2 and 15.4%, respectively, which are in the excellent category in the primary level and in the good category in the middle and final levels. Take. As can be seen, the RMSE values are calculated as 0.032, 0.038 and 0.04, respectively. In the 0.25-2-P experiment, the NRMSE value was calculated to be 1.7%, which is in the excellent category. As can be seen, the RMSE value is also calculated to be 0.004. Regarding the medium-depth velocity distribution, it can be said that the numerical model has an acceptable compliance with the laboratory results and only a small error has been entered in the junction area, which can be considered as a result of the movement of secondary cells towards the corners. Conclusion: in this research The flow pattern in waterways with composite prismatic and non-prismatic sections was investigated using Flow 3D software that is capable of three-dimensional flow analysis. For three different relative roughnesses (1, 2 and 2.74) as well as three relative depths (0.15, 0.25 and 0.35) and divergence angles of 5.7 and 11.3 degrees, changes in the longitudinal component of velocity, The average depth velocity distribution, the boundary shear stress distribution as well as the flow rate transmitted by the floodplains were investigated. The results showed that with increasing the width of floodplains along the canal, the amount of velocity decreases. Also, the study of the effect of roughness on the flow pattern showed that in general, with wall roughness, the amount of velocity has decreased in all sections and also the flow pattern at the junction of the main canal and floodplain is more affected by wall roughness. The results also showed that with increasing relative depth or decreasing relative roughness, the velocity gradient between the main channel and floodplains decreases
Agaccioglu, H., Yalcin, Y. (1998) Side-Weir Flow in Curved Channels, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 124(3), pp.163~175.
Agaccioglu, H., Ali, C. (2004) Discharge Coefficient of a Triangular Side-Weir Located on a Curved Channels, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 130(5), pp.410~423.
Cheong, H. F. (1991) Discharge coefficient of lateral diversion from trapezoidal channel, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 117(4), pp.461~475.
Uyumaz, A. (1997) Side Weir in U-Shaped Channels Journal of Hydraulics Engineering. 123(7), pp.639~646.
Artificial reef-installed seabeds may have significantly different scouring patterns depending on the ground conditions, such as the soil particle size, even though the flow velocity and water depth are similar. In this study, the scour characteristics of the ground were determined using Flow-3D to evaluate the geotechnical stability of artificial reefs installed on various seabeds, such as sand, silt, and clay. The analysis results indicated that the smaller the particle size of the soil, the larger the amount of scour that occurs around the artificial reef and the longer it takes to reach an equilibrium state. However, eroded soil particles were deposited on the rear part of the artificial reef as the soil particle size increased. The maximum scour depth and average particle size showed a non-linear relationship. In particular, the maximum scour depth increased significantly in fine-grained soils.
(left) Physical model of Greenwich Pumping Station interception chamber flap valves in operation and (right) physical model of Greenwich PS internal structures for energy dissipation within the shaft – Courtesy of Mott MacDonald and BHR Group
The editor and publishers thank Ricardo Telo, Senior Hydraulic Engineer, and Tejal Shah, Senior Mechanical Engineer, both withย Mott MacDonald, for providing the above article for publication.
Matthew Hickox, PE, brings civil engineering expertise in stormwater and river design, planning, and construction phase services. His experience is founded on a solid understanding of hydrologic modeling, 1- and 2-dimensional hydraulic modeling, in-stream hydraulic structures, scour protection measures, culvert and bridge hydraulics, and the regulatory environment for stormwater projects.
Figure 2. Original design conditions unit width CFD model results showing velocity, cross section view of structure. The only difference with Figure 1 is the downstream bed elevation.
Figure 3. Existing conditions CFD model results showing velocity streamlines at 2-year event discharge. High velocities are areas of significant abrasion damage, low velocity areas have little or no abrasion damage.Figure 4. Existing conditions shows rebar exposed from significant abrasion damage to stilling basin apron in high velocity areas
Figure 5. Preliminary design check to verify velocities under a raised tailwater condition at a 2-year event discharge. Velocity cross section slices shown.
NesreenTahabMaged M.El-FekyaAtef A.El-SaiadaIsmailFathya aDepartment of Water and Water Structures Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt bLab Manager, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
Blockage through crossing structures is one of the dangerous problems that threaten its stability. There are few researches concerned with blockage shape in culverts and its effect on characteristics of scour downstream it.
The study’s purpose is to discuss the action of blockage through box culvert on both water surface and scour numerically. A sediment transport model has been investigated for this purpose using FLOW 3D v11.1.0. Different ratios of blockage through box culvert have been studied. The FLOW 3D model was calibrated with experimental data.
The results present that the FLOW 3D program was capable to simulate accurately the scour downstream box culvert. The velocity distribution, maximum scour depth and water depths for blocked cases have been plotted and compared with the non-blocked case (base case).
The results proved that the blockage ratio 70% of culvert height makes the water depth upstream increases by 2.3 times of culvert height and mean velocity increases by 3 times more than in the base case. An equation has been created to estimate the relative maximum scour depth as a function of blockage ratio.
1. Introduction
Local scour is the removal of granular bed material by the action of hydrodynamic forces. As the depth of scour hole increases, the stability of the foundation of the structure may be endangered, with a consequent risk of damage and failure [1]. So the prediction and control of scour is considered to be very important for protecting the water structures from failure. Most previous studies were designed to study the different factors that impact on scour and their relationship with scour hole dimensions like fluid characteristics, flow conditions, bed properties, and culvert geometry. Many previous researches studied the effect of flow rate on scour hole by information Froude number or modified Froude number [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]. Cesar Mendoza [6] found a good correlation between the scour depth and the discharge Intensity (Qgโ.5Dโ2.5). Breusers and Raudkiv [7] used shear velocity in the outlet-scour prediction procedure. Ali and Lim [8] used the densimetric Froude number in estimation of the scour depth [1], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14]. โThe densimetric Froude number presents the ratio of the tractive force on sediment particle to the submerged specific weight of the sedimentโ [15](1)Fd=uฯsฯ-1gD50
Ali and Lim [8] pointed to the consequence of tailwater depth on scour behavior [1], [2], [8], [13]. Abida and Townsend [2] indicated that the maximum depth of local scour downstream culvert was varying with the tailwater depth in three ways: first, for very shallow tailwater depths, local scouring decreases with a decrease in tailwater depth; second, when the ratio of tailwater depth to culvert height ranged between 0.2 and 0.7, the scour depth increases with decreasing tailwater depth; and third for a submerged outlet condition. The tailwater depth has only a marginal effect on the maximum depth of scour [2]. Ruff et al. [16] observed that for materials having similar mean grain sizes (d50) but different standard deviations (ฯ). As (ฯ) increased, the maximum scour hole depth decreased. Abt et al. [4] mentioned to role of soil type of maximum scour depth. It was noticed that local scour was more dangerous for uniform sands than for well-graded mixtures [1], [2], [4], [9], [17], [18]. Abt et al [3], [19] studied the culvert shape effect on scour hole. The results evidenced that the culvert shape has a limited effect on outlet scour. Under equivalent discharge conditions, it was noted that a square culvert with height equal to the diameter of a circular culvert would reduce scour [16], [20]. The scour hole dimension was also effected by the culvert slope. Abt et al. [3], [21] showed that the culvert slope is a key element in estimating the culvert flow velocity, the discharge capacity, and sediment transport capability. Abt et al. [21], [22] tested experimentally culvert drop height effect on maximum scour depth. It was observed that as the drop height was increasing, the depth of scour was also increasing. From the previous studies, it could have noticed that the most scour prediction formula downstream unblocked culvert was the function of densimetric Froude number, soil properties (d50, ฯ), tailwater depth and culvert opening size. Blockage is the phenomenon of plugging water structures due to the movement of water flow loaded with sediment and debris. Water structures blockage has a bad effect on water flow where it causes increasing of upstream water level that may cause flooding around the structure and increase of scour rate downstream structures [23], [24]. The blockage phenomenon through was studied experimentally and numerical [15], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33]. Jaeger and Lucke [33] studied the debris transport behavior in a natural channel in Australia. Froude number scale model of an existing culvert was used. It was noticed that through rainfall event, the mobility of debris was impressed by stream shape (depth and width). The condition of the vegetation (size and quantities) through the catchment area was the main factor in debris transport. Rigby et al. [26] reported that steep slope was increasing the ability to mobilize debris that form field data of blocked culverts and bridges during a storm in Wollongong city.
Streftaris et al. [32] studied the probability of screen blockage by debris at trash screens through a numerical model to relate between the blockage probability and nature of the area around. Recently, many commercial computational fluid programs (CFD) such as SSIIM, Fluent, and FLOW 3D are used in the analysis of the scour process. Scour and sediment transport numerical model need to validate by using experimental data or field data [34], [35], [36], [37], [38]. Epely-Chauvin et al. [36] investigated numerically the effect of a series of parallel spur diked. The experimental data were compared by SSIIM and FLOW 3D program. It was found that the accuracy of calibrated FLOW 3D model was better than SSIIM model. Nielsen et al. [35] used the physical model and FLOW 3D model to analyze the scour process around the pile. The soil around the pile was uniform coarse stones in the physical models that were simulated by regular spheres, porous media, and a mixture of them. The calibrated porous media model can be used to determine the bed shear stress. In partially blocked culverts, there arenโt many studies that explain the blockage impact on scour dimensions. Sorourian et al. [14], [15] studied the effect of inlet partial blockage on scour characteristics downstream box culvert. It resulted that the partial blockage at the culvert inlet could be the main factor in estimating the depth of scour. So, this study is aiming to investigate the effects of blockage through a box culvert on flow and scour characteristics by different blockage ratios and compares the results with a non-blocked case. Create a dimensionless equation relates the blockage ratio of the culvert with scour characteristics downstream culvert.
2. Experimental data
The experimental work of the study was conducted in the Hydraulics and Water Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Egypt. The flume had a rectangular cross-section of 66 cm width, 65.5 cm depth, and 16.2 m long. A rectangular culvert was built with 0.2 m width, 0.2 m height and 3.00 m long with ฮธ = 25ยฐ gradually outlet and 0.8 m fixed apron. The model was located on the mid-point of the channel. The sediment part was extended for a distance 2.20 m with 0.66 m width and 0.20 m depth of coarse sand with specific weight 1.60 kg/cm3, d50 = 2.75 mm and ฯ (d90/d50) = 1.50. The particle size distribution was as shown in Fig. 1. The experimental model was tested for different inlet flow (Q) of 25, 30, 34, 40 l/s for different submerged ratio (S) of 1.25, 1.50, 1.75.
3. Dimensional analysis
A dimensional analysis has been used to reduce the number of variables which affecting on the scour pattern downstream partial blocked culvert. The main factors affecting the maximum scour depth are:(2)ds=f(b.h.L.hb.lb.Q.ud.hu.hd.D50.ฯ.ฯs.g.ls.dd.ld)
Fig. 2 shows a definition sketch of the experimental model. The maximum scour depth can be written in a dimensionless form as:(3)dsh=f(B.Fd.S)where the ds/h is the relative maximum scour depth.
4. Numerical work
The FLOW 3D is (CFD) program used by many researchers and appeared high accuracy in solving hydrodynamic and sediment transport models in the three dimensions. Numerical simulation with FLOW 3D was performed to study the impacts of blockage ratio through box culvert on shear stress, velocity distribution and the sediment transport in terms of the hydrodynamic features (water surface, velocity and shear stress) and morphological parameters (scour depth and sizes) conditions in accurately and efficiently. The renormalization group (RNG) turbulence model was selected due to its high ability to predict the velocity profiles and turbulent kinetic energy for the flow through culvert [39]. The one-fluid incompressible mode was used to simulate the water surface. Volume of fluid (VOF) method was employed in FLOW 3D to tracks a liquid interface through arbitrary deformations and apply the correct boundary conditions at the interface [40].1.
Governing equations
Three-dimensional Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) equation was applied for incompressible viscous fluid motion. The continuity equation is as following:(4)VFโฯโt+โโxฯuAx+โโyฯvAy+โโzฯwAz=RDIF(5)โuโt+1VFuAxโuโx+vAyโuโy+ฯAzโuโz=-1ฯโPโx+Gx+fx(6)โvโt+1VFuAxโvโx+vAyโvโy+ฯAzโvโz=-1ฯโPโy+Gy+fy(7)โฯโt+1VFuAxโฯโx+vAyโฯโy+ฯAzโฯโz=-1ฯโPโz+Gz+fz
ฯ is the fluid density,
VF is the volume fraction,
(x,y,z) is the Cartesian coordinates,
(u,v,w) are the velocity components,
(Ax,Ay,Az) are the area fractions and
RDIF is the turbulent diffusion.
P is the average hydrodynamic pressure,
(Gx, Gy, Gz) are the body accelerations and
(fx, fy, fz) are the viscous accelerations.
The motion of sediment transport (suspended, settling, entrainment, bed load) is estimated by predicting the erosion, advection and deposition process as presented in [41].
The critical shields parameter is (ฮธcr) is defined as the critical shear stress ฯcr at which sediments begin to move on a flat and horizontal bed [41]:(8)ฮธcr=ฯcrgd50(ฯs-ฯ)
The SoulsbyโWhitehouse [42] is used to predict the critical shields parameter as:(9)ฮธcr=0.31+1.2dโ+0.0551-e(-0.02dโ)(10)dโ=d50g(Gs-1ฮฝ3where:
d* is the dimensionless grain size
Gs is specific weight (Gs = ฯs/ฯ)
The entrainment coefficient (0.005) was used to scale the scour rates and fit the experimental data. The settling velocity controls the Soulsby deposition equation. The volumetric sediment transport rate per width of the bed is calculated using Van Rijn [43].2.
Meshing and geometry of model
After many trials, it was found that the uniform cell size with 0.03 m cell size is the closest to the experimental results and takes less time. As shown in Fig. 3. In x-direction, the total model length in this direction is 700 cm with mesh planes at โ100, 0, 300, 380 and 600 cm respectively from the origin point, in y-direction, the total model length in this direction is 66 cm at distances 0, 23, 43 and 66 cm respectively from the origin point. In z-direction, the total model length in this direction is 120 cm. with mesh planes at โ20, 0, 20 and 100 cm respectively.3.
Boundary condition
As shown in Fig. 4, the boundary conditions of the model have been defined to simulate the experimental flow conditions accurately. The upstream boundary was defined as the volume flow rate with a different flow rate. The downstream boundary was defined as specific pressure with different fluid elevation. Both of the right side, the left side, and the bottom boundary were defined as a wall. The top boundary defined as specified pressure with pressure value equals zero.
5. Validation of experimental results and numerical results
The experimental results investigated the flow and scour characteristics downstream culvert due to different flow conditions. The measured value of maximum scour depth is compared with the simulated depth from FLOW 3D model as shown in Fig. 5. The scour results show that the simulated results from the numerical model is quite close to the experimental results with an average error of 3.6%. The water depths in numerical model results is so close to the experimental results as shown in Fig. 6 where the experiment and numerical results are compared at different submerged ratios and flow rates. The results appear maximum error percentage in water depths upstream and downstream the culvert is about 2.37%. This indicated that the FLOW 3D is efficient for the prediction of maximum scour depth and the flow depths downstream box culvert.
6. Computation time
The run time was chosen according to reaching to the stability limit. Hydraulic stability was achieved after 50 s, where the scour development may still go on. For run 1, the numerical simulation was run for 1000 s as shown in Fig. 7 where it mostly reached to scour stability at 800 s. The simulation time was taken 500 s at about 95% of scour stability.
7. Analysis and discussions
Fig. 8 shows the study sections where sec 1 represents to upstream section, sec2 represents to inside section and sec3 represents to downstream stream section. Table 1 indicates the scour hole dimensions at different blockage case. The symbol (B) represents to blockage and the number points to blockage ratio. B0 case signifies to the non-blocked case, B30 is that blockage height is 30% to the culvert height and so on.
Table 1. The scour results of different blockage ratio.
Case
hb cm
B = hb/h
Q lit/s
S
Fd
d50 mm
ds/h measured
ls/h
dd/h
ld/h
ds/h estimated
B0
0
0
35
1.26
1.69
2.5
0.58
1.50
0.27
5.00
0.46
B30
6
0.30
35
1.26
1.68
2.5
0.48
1.25
0.27
4.25
0.40
B50
10
0.50
35
1.22
1.74
2.5
0.45
1.10
0.24
4.00
0.37
B70
14
0.70
35
1.23
1.73
2.5
0.43
1.50
0.16
5.50
0.33
7.1. Scour hole geometry
The scour hole geometry mainly depends on the properties of soil of the bed downstream the fixed apron. From Table 1, the results show that the maximum scour depth in B0 case is about 0.58 of culvert height while the maximum deposition in B0 is 0.27 culvert height. There is a symmetric scour hole as shown in Fig. 9 in B0 case. An asymmetric scour hole is created in B50 and B70 due to turbulences that causes the deviation of the jet direction from the center of the flume where appear in Fig. 11 and Fig. 19.
7.2. Flow water surface
Fig. 10 presents the relative free surface water (hw/h) along the x-direction at center of the box culvert. From the mention Figure, it is easy to release the effect of different blockage ratios. The upstream water level rises by increasing the blockage ratio. Increasing upstream water level may cause flooding over the banks of the waterway. In the 70% blockage case, the upstream water level rises to 2.3 times of culvert height more than the non-blocked case at the same discharge and submerged ratio. The water surface profile shows an increase in water level upstream the culvert due to a decrease in transverse velocity. Because of decreasing velocity downstream culvert, there is an increase in water level before it reaches its uniform depth.
7.3. Velocity vectors
Scour downstream hydraulic structures mainly affects by velocities distribution and bed shear stress. Fig. 11 shows the velocity vectors and their magnitude in xz plane at the same flow conditions. The difference in the upstream water level due to the different blockage ratios is so clear. The maximum water level is in B70 and the minimum level is in B0. The inlet mean velocity value is about 0.88 m/s in B0 increases to 2.86 m/s in B70. As the blockage ratio increases, the inlet velocity increases. The outlet velocity in B0 case makes downward jet causes scour hole just after the fixed apron in the middle of the bed while the blockage causes upward water flow that appears clearly in B70. The upward jet decreases the scour depth to 0.13 culvert height less than B0 case. After the scour hole, the velocity decreases and the flow becomes uniform.
7.4. Velocity distribution
Fig. 12 represents flow velocity (Vx) distribution along the vertical depth (z/hu) upstream the inlet for the different blockage ratios at the same flow conditions. From the Figure, the maximum velocity creates closed to bed in B0 while in blocked case, the maximum horizontal velocity creates at 0.30 of relative vertical depth (z/hu). Fig. 13 shows the (Vz) distribution along the vertical depth (z/hu) upstream culvert at sec 1. From the mentioned Figure, it is easy to note that the maximum vertical is in B70 which appears that as the blockage ratio increases the vertical ratio also increases. In the non-blocked case. The vertical velocity (Vz) is maximum at (z/hu) equals 0.64. At the end of the fixed apron (sec 3), the horizontal velocity (Vx) is slowly increasing to reach the maximum value closed to bed in B0 and B30 while the maximum horizontal velocity occurs near to the top surface in B50 and B70 as shown in Fig. 14. The vertical velocity component along the vertical depth (z/hd) is presented in Fig. 15. The vertical velocity (Vz) is maximum in B0 at vertical depth (z/hd) 0.3 with value 0.45 m/s downward. Figs. 16 and 17 observe velocity components (Vx, Vz) along the vertical depth just after the end of blockage length at the centerline of the culvert barrel. It could be noticed the uniform velocity distribution in B0 case with horizontal velocity (Vx) closed to 1.0 m/s and vertical velocity closed to zero. In the blocked case, the maximum horizontal velocity occurs in depth more than the blockage height.
7.5. Bed velocity distribution
Fig. 18 presents the x-velocity vectors at 1.5 cm above the bed for different blockage ratios from the velocity vectors distribution and magnitude, it is easy to realize the position of the scour hole and deposition region. In B0 and B30, the flow is symmetric so that the scour hole is created around the centerline of flow while in B50 and B70 cases, the flow is asymmetric and the scour hole creates in the right of flow direction in B50. The maximum scour depth is found in the left of flow direction in B70 case where the high velocity region is found.
8. Maximum scour depth prediction
Regression analysis is used to estimate maximum scour depth downstream box culvert for different ratios of blockage by correlating the maximum relative scour by other variables that affect on it in one formula. An equation is developed to predict maximum scour depth for blocked and non-blocked. As shown in the equation below, the relative maximum scour depth(ds/hd) is a function of densimetric Froude number (Fd), blockage ratio (B) and submerged ratio (S)(11)dsh=0.56Fd-0.20B+0.45S-1.05
In this equation the coefficient of correlation (R2) is 0.82 with standard error equals 0ยท08. The developed equation is valid for Fd = [0.9 to 2.10] and submerged ratio (S) โฅ 1.00. Fig. 19 shows the comparison between relative maximum scour depths (ds/h) measured and estimated for different blockage ratios. Fig. 20 clears the comparison between residuals and ds/h estimated for the present study. From these figures, it could be noticed that there is a good agreement between the measured and estimated relative scour depth.
9. Comparison with previous scour equations
Many previous scour formulae have been produced for calculation the maximum scour depth downstream non-blockage culvert. These equations have been included the effect of flow regime, culvert shape, soil properties and the flow rate on maximum scour depth. Two of previous experimental studies data have been chosen to be compared with the present study results in non-blocked study data. Table 2 shows comparison of culvert shape, densmetric Froude number, median particle size and scour equations for these previous studies. By applying the present study data in these studies scour formula as shown in Fig. 21, it could be noticed that there are a good agreement between present formula results and others empirical equations results. Where that Lim [44] and Abt [4] are so closed to the present study data.
Table 2. Comparison of some previous scour formula.
The present study has shown that the FLOW 3D model can accurately simulate water surface and the scour hole characteristics downstream the box culvert with error percentage in water depths does not exceed 2.37%. Velocities distribution through and outlets culvert barrel helped on understanding the scour hole shape.
The blockage through culvert had caused of increasing of water surface upstream structure where the upstream water level in B70 was 2.3 of culvert height more than non-blocked case at the same discharge that could be dangerous on the stability of roads above. The depth averaged velocity through culvert barrel increased by 3 times its value in non-blocked case.
On the other hand, blockage through culvert had a limited effect on the maximum scour depth. The little effect of blockage on maximum scour depth could be noticed in Fig. 11. From this Figure, it could be noted that the residual part of culvert barrel after the blockage part had made turbulences. These turbulences caused the deviation of the flow resulting in the formation of asymmetric scour hole on the side of channel. This not only but in B70 the blockage height caused upward jet which made a wide far scour hole as cleared from the results in Table 1.
An empirical equation was developed from the results to estimate the maximum scour depth relative to culvert height function of blockage ratio (B), submerged ratio (S), and densimetric Froude number (Fd). The equation results was compared with some scour formulas at the same densimetric Froude number rang where the present study results was in between the other equations results as shown in Fig. 21.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
The most widely used method of flushing of reservoirs is to remove the deposited sediment through the bottom outlets. The size and shape of gates affect the outflow volume of water, the volume of removed sediments, and flushing efficiency. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the area, number and shape of the bottom outlet gates on the velocity, concentration, and volume of the removed sediments and the dimensions of the flushing cone. Four different shapes with the same area were used for this purpose. Moreover, to study the effect of area and number of gates on flushing efficiency, circular gates with two different diameters were used. In this research, various pressure flushing modes were simulated using the Flow-3D model. Calibration and evaluation of this model were performed based on experimental findings. Results showed the parameters of the Flow-3D measures such as length, width, maximum depth, and flushing cone size with an average error of 3%, which is in good agreement with experimental results. As the area of the outlet gates increases, flushing is less risky in viewpoints of the operation process. Furthermore, the gate with a horizontal-rectangular section has an optimal shape with the highest flushing efficiency.
Fig1 3D flow simulation to improve the design and operation of the dam bottom outletsFig2 3D flow simulation to improve the design and operation of the dam bottom outletsFig8 3D flow simulation to improve the design and operation of the dam bottom outletsFig10 3D flow simulation to improve the design and operation of the dam bottom outlets
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FIGURA 1.2. (ARRIBA) EROSIรN DE UN BANCO DE SEDIMENTOS POR LA CORRIENTE
NATURAL;(ABAJO) MITIGACIรN DE LA EROSIรN MEDIANTE LA INSTALACIรN DE PANELES
SUMERGIDOS
FUENTE: (Odgaard, 2009)FIGURA 1.3. REDISTRIBUCIรN DEL FLUJO POR ACCIรN DE PANELES SUMERGIDOS
DENTRO DE UNA SECCIรN TRANSVERSAL DEL CANAL
FUENTE: (Odgaard, 2009)FIGURA 2.2. BOSQUEJO DE LA CIRCULACIรN INDUCIDA POR UNA SERIE DE TRES
PANELES SUMERGIDOS
FUENTE: (Odgaard, 2009)FIGURA 2.3. ESQUEMA QUE MUESTRA EL CAMBIO PROVOCADO POR TRES PANELES
SUMERGIDOS EN EL PERFIL DE LA CAMA DE SEDIMENTOS
FUENTE: (Odgaard, 2009)FIGURA 2.4. ESQUEMA DEL TRANSPORTE DE SEDIMENTOS
FUENTE: (Sarango, 2013)FIGURA 2.5. FORMAS DEL TRANSPORTE DE SEDIMENTOS
FUENTE: (Garcia & Maza, 1996)FOTOGRAFรA 3.1. VISTA EN PLANTA DEL CANAL
FUENTE: (Hamad, 2015)FOTOGRAFรA 3.2. PANEL SUMERGIDO INSTALADO
FUENTE: (Hamad, 2015)FOTOGRAFรA 3.3. SISTEMA DE COORDENADAS DEL PANEL SUMERGIDO
FUENTE: (Hamad, 2015)FIGURA 4.9. DISTRIBUCIรN DE PRESIONES SOBRE EL PANEL SUMERGIDO
ELABORADO: Jurado โ Oรฑate, 2020FOTOGRAFรA 4.1. TOPOGRAFรA FINAL DEL LECHO DE ARENA EN MODELO
EXPERIMENTAL
FUENTE: (Hamad, 2015)FIGURA 4.15. TOPOGRAFรA FINAL DEL LECHO DE ARENA TRAZADA EN MATLAB
FUENTE: (Hamad, 2015)TABLA 4.6. TENSIONES DE REYNOLDS TANTO PARA EL MODELO NUMรRICO (PRUEBA 23)
COMO PARA EL MODELO EXPERIMENTAL PARA LOS PUNTOS DE ESTUDIO
1 MS Student, Department of Water Structures, Faculty of Water and Environmental Engineering, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran.
2 Professor, Department of Water Structures, Faculty of Water and Environmental Engineering, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran.
3 shahid chamran university
Abstract
Due to the crisis of water scarcity, water resources management has become inevitable in Iran. Dam reservoirs are among the most important used water resources. Construction of a dam on a river reduces the flow velocity in the reservoir, finally resulting in the deposit of sediments in it. The depositing of sediments in the dam reservoir reduces its useful volume and disturbs the dam’s performance in terms of water storage. Therefore, solutions have always been proposed to manage and discharge sediments in the reservoir during the service period. In this regard, pressurized flushing is a common solution for eliminating sediments. In this method, by opening the bottom gates, the upstream water pressure discharges the sediments through the orifice. The volume of the exited sediments is a function of factors, such as gate diameter, sediments type and size, water height upstream the gate, and outflow discharge. Numerous studies have been conducted on the effect of the mentioned factors on the volume of sediments exited from an orifice. Shahmirzadi et al. (2010) experimentally evaluated the effect of the diameter of bottom dischargers on the dimensions of the flushing cone. Powell and Khan (2015) conducted tests to investigate the flow pattern upstream of a dam orifice under the fixed bed and equilibrium scour (mobile bed) conditions. Their results demonstrated that the velocity’s horizontal component was almost equal for both fixed and equilibrium scour conditions. The same conditions were also the case for the vertical component of the velocity.
Numerical Simulation Test of Scour around Offshore Jacket Structure using FLOW-3D
J Korean Soc Coast Ocean Eng. 2015;27(6):373-381Publication date (electronic) : 2015 December 31doi : https://doi.org/10.9765/KSCOE.2015.27.6.373Dong Hui Ko*, Shin Taek Jeong,**, Nam Sun Oh****Hae Poong Engineering Inc.**Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wonkwang University***OceanยทPlant Construction Engineering, Mokpo Maritime National University ๊ณ ๋ํ*, ์ ์ ํ,**, ์ค๋จ์ ***
As offshore structures such as offshore wind and offshore platforms have been installed frequently in ocean, scour effects are considered important. To test the scour effect, numerical simulation of scour has been carried out. However, the test was usually conducted under the uni-directional flow without bi-directional current flow in western sea of Korea. Thus, in this paper, numerical simulations of scour around offshore jacket substructure of HeMOSU-1 installed in western sea of Korea are conducted using FLOW-3D. The conditions are uni-directional and bi-directional flow considering tidal current. And these results are compared to measured data. The analysis results for 10,000 sec show that under uni-directional conditions, maximum scour depth was about 1.32 m and under bi-directional conditions, about 1.44 m maximum scour depth occurred around the structure. Meanwhile, about 1.5~2.0 m scour depths occurred in field observation and the result of field test is similar to result under bi-directional conditions.
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Figure 1. Sketch map of the port Laozi on Lake HongzeFigure 2. The location of the port entrance on Lake Hongze:
a โ variant 1; b โ variant 2; c โ variants 3-5Figure 3. Port water area planFigure 4. Modeling of variant 1 with the movement of waves in the
port water areaFigure 5. Modeling of variant 2:
a is prevailing movement of water towards the enclosed water area; b is prevailing
reverse movement of waterFigure 6. Modeling of variant 3Figure 7. Modeling of variant 4Figure 8. Modeling of variant 5Figure 9. Plan of the port water area with design pointsFigure 10. Change in water depth at point A: a โ variant 1; b โ variant 2Figure 11. Change in water depth at point A: a โ variant 3; b โ variant 4; c โ variant 5Figure 12. Change in water depth at points A (a) and C (b) for variant 3Figure 13. Change in water depth at points A (a) and B (b) for variant 3Figure 14. Scheme of vessel traffic: a โ variant 3; b โ variant 4
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Figure 1.1: The DISAMATIC process: 1. The sand shot. 2. Squeezing the mold. 3.
Moving the mold to the chamber front and stripping off the swing plate (SP). 4. Mold
close-up where the pressure plate (PP) pushes the mold out of the molding chamber. 5.
Stripping off the PP where the PP is stripped from the mold and returns to its starting
position in the molding chamber. 6. Closing the molding chamber and repeating a new
cycle. The edited figure and text are from [8]Figure 2.1: The green sand mixture. The figure is from [8]Figure 2.2: The size distribution of the green sand applied in the project. The figure is
from [9]Figure 2.3: The wet bridges created in the bentonite from the water make the bentonite cohesive and thereby the sand grains will stick togetherFigure 2.11: The density as a function of compactability with respect to the number of
rammings 1-10. The first ramming starts from the left indicated by the number. The cross
placed in the middle shows the average value of the batches with an individual color. The
dotted lines are the standard deviations of compactability % as a horizontal line and the
standard deviations of density [ kg
m3 ] as a vertical line.Figure 2.12: (Top) The sequence in the DISAMATIC process (1)-(5). (Middle) The
performed experiments placed on the Mohr circle (I)-(V). (Bottom) The five names of the
mechanical behaviours.Figure 2.13: The high load flow in the DISAMATIC process and the ring shear test placed
on the Mohr circleFigure 2.27: (Left side) The low load flow in the DISAMATIC process. (Right side) The
performed experiments placed on the Mohr circle.
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[8] J. Jang and S. S. Lee, โTheoretical and experimental study of MHD (magnetohydrodynamic) micropump,โ Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical, 80(1), 84-89 (2000).
[9] M. Orme and R. F. Smith, โEnhanced aluminum properties by means of precise droplet deposition,โ Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Transactions of the ASME, 122(3), 484-493, (2000)
Multi-material Laser Powder Bed Fusion | FLOW-3D AM
Micro and meso scale simulations using FLOW-3D AM help us understand the mixing of different materials in the melt pool and the formation of potential defects such as lack of fusion and porosity. In this simulation, the stainless steel and aluminum powders have independently-defined temperature dependent material properties that FLOW-3D AM tracks to accurately capture the melt pool dynamics. Learn more about FLOW-3D AM’s mutiphysics simulation capabilities at https://www.flow3d.com/products/flow3…
HPDC |Comparison of slow shot profiles and entrained air during a filling simulation |FLOW-3D CAST
Shown is a video comparing two slow shot profiles. The graphs highlight the shot profiles through time and the difference in entrained air between the slow shots. Note the lack of air entrained in shot sleeve with calculated shot profile which yields a much better controlled flow within the shot sleeve.
Duo Zhang1,2, K. Papadikis1โ, Sai Gu1 1Xiโan Jiaotong-Liverpool University, No. 111 Renโai Road, Suzhou Dushu Lake Higher Education Town, Suzhou, China 215123. 2The University of Liverpool, Brownlow Hill, Liverpool, L69 7ZX, United Kingdom. Tel: 0086-512-88161752 Email: Konstantinos.Papadikis@xjtlu.edu.cn โCorresponding author
Figure 2: Computational snapshots of the droplet impact on a flat surface; W e = 52,
Re = 41, density ratio=240, contact angle=96โฆ
.Figure 6: Time evolution of the spread factor for Oh = 0.177.Figure 11: Computational 3D snapshots of droplet impact on a sphere; W e = 26.14,
Re = 42.48, density ratio=328, contact angle=76โฆ, Bo = 0.0908.Table 2: Summary of the simulation parameters for the cases of droplet impact onto a
sphere.
References [1] A.L.Yarin, Drop impact dynamics: Splashing, spreading, receding, bouncing. . . , Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 38(2006) 159-192. [2] M.Rein, Phenomena of liquid drop impact on solid and liquid surface, Fluid. Dyn. Res. 12(1993) 61-93. [3] R.Rioboo, M.Marengo, C.Tropea, Time evolution of liquid drop impact onto solid, dry surfaces, Exp. Fluids. 33(2002) 112-124. [4] A.Asai, M.Shioya, S.Hirasawa, T.Okazaki, Impact of an ink drop on paper, J Imaging Sci Techn. 37(1993) 205-207. [5] B.L.Scheller, D.W.Bousfield, Newtonian drop impact with a solid surface, AIChE J. 41(1995) 1357-1367. [6] S. Chandra and C. T. Avedesian, On the collision of a droplet with a solid surface, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 432(1991) 13. [7] M.Pasandideh-Fard, Y.M.Qiao, S.Chandra, J.Mostaghimi, Capillary effects during droplet impact on a solid surface, Phys Fluids. 8(1996) 650-660. [8] T.Mao, D.C.S.Kuhn, H.Tran, Spread and rebound of liquid droplets upon impact on flat surfaces, AIChE J. 43(1997) 2169-2179. [9] I.V.Roisman, R.Rioboo, C.Tropea, Normal impact of a liquid drop on a dry surface: Model for spreading and receding, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 458(2002) 1411-1430. [10] H.Dong, W.W.Carr, D.G.Bucknall, J.F.Morris, Temporally-resolved inkjet drop impaction on surfaces, AIChE J. 53(2007), 2606-2617. [11] L.S.Hung, S.C.Yao, Experimental investigation of the impaction of water droplets on cylindrical objects, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 25(1999) 1545-1559.
[12] Y.Hardalupas, A.M.K.P.Taylor, J.H.Wilkins, Experimental investigation of submillimeter droplet impingement onto spherical surfaces, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow 20 (1999) 477-485. [13] S.Bakshi, L.V.Roisman, C.Tropea, Investigations on the impact of a drop onto a small spherical target, Phys Fluids. 19(2007) 032102. [14] S.Mukherjee, Numerical simulation of wall impinging drops, Ph.D.thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University 2006. [15] G.Trapaga, J.Szekely, Mathematical Modeling of the Isothermal Impingement of Liquid Droplets in Spraying Processes, Metall. Trans. B. 22(1991) 901-914. [16] M.Bussmann, S.Afkhami, Drop impact simulation with a velocity-dependent contact angle, Chem. Eng. Sci. 62(2007) 7214-7224. [17] A.Gupta, R.Kumar, Droplet impingement and breakup on a dry surface, Comput. Fluids. 39(2010) 1696-1703. [18] A.Gupta, R.Kumar, Two-dimensional lattice Boltzmann model for droplet impingement and breakup in ow density ratio liquids, Comm. Comp. Phys. 10(2011) 767-784. [19] Y.Y.Yan, Y.Q.Zu, A lattice Boltzmann method for incompressible two-phase flows on partial wetting surface with large density ratio, J. Comput. Phys. 227(2007) 763- 775. [20] T.Inamuro, T.Ogata, S.Tajima, N.Konishi, A lattice Boltzmann method for incompressible two-phase flows with large density differences, J. Comput. Phys. 198(2004) 628-644. [21] A.J.Briant, P.Papatzacos, J.M.Yeomans, Lattice Boltzmann simulations of contact line motion in a liquid-gas system, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A. 360(2002) 485- 495.
[22] A.Fakhari, M.H.Rahimian, Phase-field modeling by the method of lattice Boltzmann equations, Phys. Rev. E. 81(2010) 036707. [23] M.R.Swift, E.Orlandini, W.R.Osborn, J.M.Yeomans, Lattice Boltzmann simulations of liquid-gas and binary fluid systems, Phys. Rev. E. 54(1996) 5041-5052. [24] S.Q.Shen, F.F.Bi, Y.L.Guo, Simulation of droplets impact on curved surfaces with lattice Boltzmann method, Int. J. Heat Mass Tranf. 55(2012) 6938-6943. [25] X.Shan, H.Chen, Simulation of nonideal gases and liquid-gas phase transitions by the lattice Boltzmann equation, Phys. Rev. E. 49(1994) 2941-2948. [26] P.Yuan, L.Schaefer, Equations of state in a lattice Boltzmann model, Phys Fluids. 18(2006) 042101. [27] D.H.Rothman, J.M.Keller, Immiscible cellular-automation fluids, J. Statist. Phys. 52(1988) 1119-1129. [28] X.He, S.Chen, R.Zhang, A lattice Boltzmann scheme for incompressible multiphase flow and its application in simulation of Rayleigh-Taylor instability, J. Comput. Phys. 152(1999) 642-663. [29] T.Reis, T.N.Phillips, Lattice Boltzmann model for simulating immiscible two-phase flows, J. Phys. A: Math. Theor. 40(2007) 4033-4053. [30] S.Leclaire, M.Reggio, J.-Y.Trepanier, Numerical evaluation of two recoloring operators for an immiscible two-phase flow lattice Boltzmann model. 36(2012) 2237-2252. [31] S.Leclaire, P.Nicolas, M.Reggio, J.-Y.Trepanier, Enhanced equilibrium distribution functions for simulationg immiscible multiphase flows with variable density ratios in a class of lattice Boltzmann models. 57(2013) 159-168. [32] H.B.Huang, H.W.Zheng, X.Y.Lu, C.Shu, An evaluation of a 3D free-energy-based lattice Boltzmann model for multiphase flows with large density ratio, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids. 63(2009) 1193-1207.
[33] T.Lee, C.L.Lin, A stable discretization of the lattice Boltzmann equation for simulation of incompressible two-phase flows at high density ratio, J. Comput. Phys. 206(2005) 16-47. [34] H.W.Zheng, C.Shu, Y.T.Chew, A lattice Boltzmann model for multiphase flows with large density ratio, J. Comput. Phys. 218(2006) 353-371. [35] D.A.Perumal, A.K.Dass,Application of lattice Boltzmann method for incompressibe viscous flows, Applied Mathematical Modelling. 37(2013) 4075-4092.
Flux-averaged hydraulic head when 3D Hydraulic Head is requested from additional output options
Hydraulic energy flow when hydraulic data output is requested
Total number of particles of each defined species in each particle class crossing flux surface when the particle model is active
Flow rate for all active and passive scalars this includes scalar quantities associated with active physical models (eg. suspended sediment, air entrainment, ect.)
Figure 4. Computed centerline bed profiles after 900 s for unidirectional flow (left) and sinusoidal tide (right).
Figure 5. 3D view of scour under square tide conditions (every 300 s).Figure 6. Temporal evolution of maximum scour depth under steady and tidal flow conditions (grid resolution is 0.5 m)
Ataie-Ashtiani, B. and Beheshti, A.A. (2006). โExperimental investigation of clearwater local scour at pile groupsโ. J. Hyd. Eng., ASCE, 132(10), 1100-1104. Brethour, J. M. (2001). Transient 3-D model for lifting, transporting and depositing solid material. 2001 International Symposium on Environmental Hydraulics, Tempe, Arizona (http://flow3d.info/pdfs/tp/wat_env_tp/FloSci-Bib28-01.pdf). Escarameia, M. (1998). Laboratory investigation of scour around large structures in tidal waters. Conf. Basics of Sediment Transport and Scouring. HR Wallingford (http://kfki.baw.de/conferences/ICHE/1998-Cottbus/55.pdf). May, R.W.P. and Escarameia, M. (2002). Local scour around structures in tidal flows. First International Conference on Scour Foundations, Texas A&M University. Margheritini, L., Martinelli, L., Lamberti, A. and Frigaard, P. (2006). Erosione indotta da onde e correnti di marea attorno a pali di grande diametro. XXX Convegni di Idraulica e Construzioni Idrauliche, Rome, September 2006 (http://www.idra2006.it/referee/files/L356.pdf).
Advances in Magnetohydrodynamic Liquid Metal Jet Printing
Scott Vader1, Zachary Vader1, Ioannis H. Karampelas2 and Edward P. Furlani2, 3 1Vader Systems, Buffalo, NY 2Dept. of Chemical and Biological Engineering, 3 Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University at Buffalo SUNY, NY 14260, Office: (716) 645-1194, Fax: (716) 645-3822, efurlani@buffalo.edu
Computational model of magnetohydrodynamic-based drop generation (printhead reservoir and ejection chamber not shown): (a) the magnetic field generated by a pulsed coil is shown
Emptying of gravure cell (same cell dimensions as filling case); a three-dimensional perspective is shown. The transfer roll surface (block at top) is moving away from the gravure roll at 0.5m/s. The static contact of the fluid with all surfaces is 30ยฐ. The elapsed time is 150
New Model Setup icons With our new Model Setup design comes new icons, representing each step of the setup process.New Physics icons Our Physics icons are designed to be easily differentiated from one another at a glance, while providing clear visual representation of each modelโs purpose and use.
FLOW-3Dโs Sediment Transport model can be used to evaluate scour and deposition, where three-dimensional flow components are driving the scouring process. FLOW-3Dโs hydrodynamic model solves the full unsteady non-hydrostatic Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations that describe the flow physics. The hydrodynamic solver is fully coupled with a sediment transport module that simulates bedload and suspended sediment transport, entrainment and erosion for non-cohesive soils (Wei et al., 2014). All empirical relationships used in bedload, entrainment and settling processes are fully customizable, and up to 10 different sediment species (with different properties such as grain size, mass density and critical shear stress) can be defined. FLOW-3Dis ideal for simulating local scour over short episodic time scales.
Modeling Capabilities – Unsteady 3D mobile bed modeling – Bedload and suspended sediment transport – Non-cohesive sediment – 10 individual grain size fractions – Suspended sediment settling and entrainment – Critical angle of repose
Applications – River and coastal morphodynamics – Bridge pier and abutment scour – Local scour at hydraulic structures – Sedimentation basins – Reservoir flushing
The Sediment Transport model was first introduced in version 8.0 (Brethour, 2009), and has gone through extensive revisions in version 11.1 (Wei et al., 2014), and most recently in version 12.0 (Flow Science, 2019). A schematic of the physical processes simulated in the numerical model is illustrated below.
The different processes modeled by the Sediment Transport Model.
In the numerical model, sediment can exist as packed bed and in a suspended state. A packed bed is an erodible solid object that is represented using the FAVORโข technique for complex solid boundaries (Hirt and Sicilian, 1985). This is the same method used to represent solid objects in the hydrodynamic solver. The morphological change in the packed bed is governed by the conservation of sediment mass.
The morphological changes are governed by several different physical processes that are represented numerically in the model. These processes include bedload transport, entrainment and deposition. Bedload transport is the physical process of sediment moving laterally along the channel without being carried into suspension. Entrainment is the process by which turbulent eddies remove the grains from the top of the packed bed and transition to the suspended state. Packing is the process of grains settling out of suspension and depositing onto the packed bed. In the numerical model, this is the transition from the suspended to the packed bed state.
The relative rates of entrainment and packing control the exchange of sediment mass between the packed bed and suspended states. The model calculates bedload transport in each mesh cell containing the bed interface using the equation of Meyer-Peter Mรผller (1948), Nielsen (1992) or Van Rijn (1984). A sub-mesh method is employed to determine the amount of grains moving from the mesh cell into each mesh cell in its neighbor. The lifting velocity of grains in entrainment is calculated using the equation of Winterwerp et al. (1992). The settling velocity is calculated using Soulsby (1997). In the mesh cells containing the bed interface, location, orientation and area of the interface are calculated to determine the bed shear stress, dimensionless shear stress, bedload transport rates and entrainment rates. Bed shear stress in 3D turbulent flows is evaluated using the standard wall function with consideration of bed surface roughness that is proportional to the median grain size.
The suspended sediment is represented as a scalar mass concentration in the fluid. The concentration is assumed to be uniform in a given cell and is coupled with the fluid cell density and viscosity. For each species, the suspended sediment concentration is calculated by solving a transport equation.
In these experiments the propagation and deposition patterns of particle-laden flows were studied. The plot below compares experimental versus FLOW-3D simulation results from three different setups, labeled case A (100% 0.025mm size particles), case D (50% 0.069mm and 50% 0.025mm size particles), and case G (100% 0.069mm size particles).
Equilibrium bed elevation changes predicted by the numerical model for a cylindrical pier. (A) Isometric view of scour and deposition adjacent to the pier. (B) Comparison between numerical results (top) and physical model measurements (bottom).Equilibrium bed elevation changes predicted by the numerical model for the diamond pier. (A) Isometric view of scour and deposition adjacent to the pier. (B) Comparison between numerical results (top) and physical model measurements (bottom).
In this paper, the authors studied local scour by submerged three-dimensional wall jets via experiments. The table below compares the experimental versus FLOW-3D numerical results for 3D morphological changes in the scour hole for three different tailwater ratios.
References
Brethour, J.M., Hirt, C.W., 2009, Drift Model for Two-Component Flows, FSI-14-TN-83, Flow Science, Inc.
Chatterjee, S.S., Ghosh, S.N., and Chatterjee M., 1994, Local scour due to submerged horizontal jet, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 120(8), pp. 973-992.
Faruque, M.A.A., Sarathi, P., and Balachandar R., 2006, Clear Water Local Scour by Submerged Three-Dimensional Wall Jets : Effect of Tailwater Depth, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 132(6), pp. 575-580.
Flow Science, 2019, FLOW-3D Version 12.0 User Manual, Santa Fe, NM: Flow Science, Inc. https://www.flow3d.com
Gladstone, C., Phillips, J.C., and Sparks R.S.J., 1998, Experiments on bidisperse, constant-volume gravity currents: propagation and sediment deposition, Sedimentology 45, pp. 833-843.
Hirt, C.W. and Sicilian, J.M., 1985, A porosity technique for the definition of obstacles in rectangular cell meshes, 4th International Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics, Washington, D.C.
Khosronejad, A., Kang, S., & Sotiropoulos, F., 2012. Experimental and computational investigation of local scour around bridge piers, Advances in Water Resources, 37, pp. 73-85.
Mao, Y., 1986. The interaction between a pipeline and an erodible bed, PhD thesis, Institute of Hydrodynamics and Hydraulic Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.
Meyer-Peter, E. and Mรผller, R., 1948, Formulas for bed-load transport, Proceedings of the 2nd Meeting of the International Association for Hydraulic Structures Research. pp. 39โ64.
Nielsen, P., 1992, Coastal bottom boundary layers and sediment transport (Vol. 4). World scientific.
Soulsby, R., 1997, Dynamics of Marine Sands, Thomas Telford Publications, London.
Van Rijn, L. C., 1984, Sediment Transport, Part I: Bed load transport, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 110(10), pp. 1431-1456.
Wei, G., Brethour, J.M., Grรผenzner M., and Burnham, J., 2014, The Sediment Scour Model in FLOW-3D, Technical Note FSI-14-TN-99, Flow Science, Inc.
Winterwerp, J.C., Bakker, W.T., Mastbergen, D.R. and Van Rossum, H., 1992, Hyperconcentrated sand-water mixture flows over erodible bed, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 118(11), pp. 1508โ1525.
This article was contributed by Ying-Chieh Lin, Hervรฉ Capart, and Der-Liang Young of Department of Civil Engineering and Hydrotech Research Institute/National Taiwan Universityย in Taipei, Taiwan, the winner of the 2nd Flow Science 30th Anniversary Simulation Contest.
Figure 1. Collapse of Houfeng Bridge in September 2008, due to general scour of the Tachia river reach
Figure 2a. Local scour due to the exposure of a sill immediately upstream of the bridge. Photo courtesy of Zoe Lin, TBS.
Figure 2b. Local sill (water supply pipeline) exposed by river degradation, which caused a sudden drop in water surface and enhanced scour immediately downstream of the sill, where the failed bridge piles were located.
Figure 4. Views of a preliminary small-scale experiment and FLOW-3D modeling performed to simulate the conditions of the Houfeng Bridge collapse. (a)T=10 sec.; (b)T=20 sec.; (c)T=40 sec.; (d)T=80 sec.
Figure 5. The packed sediment surface and the color contours present the packed sediment height average rate of change. (a)T=10 sec.; (b)T=20 sec.; (c)T=40 sec.; (d)T=80 sec.
In addition to the flow rates and detail of hydraulic behaviors associated with the control gate structures and powerhouse operation, FLOW-3Dโs sediment and scour model allows users to identify regions of high scour both near the control structure and further downstream in the vicinity of the bridge piers.
Bridge Pier Simulations
The first video shows a FLOW-3D simulation of the erosion that occurs around a group of three 2.4 m diameter piers as river water flows past at 1.5 m/s. The river depth is 15.8 m and the mean sediment size was presumed to be 0.35 mm.
High flow condition hydraulic analysis of San Antonio river junction
Simulation of a 6-km long reach of Fraser River in Vancouver, BC. Courtesy of Northwest Hydraulic Consultants. Image shows overall velocity flow field.
A closer view of the piers of three bridge crossings. Courtesy of Northwest Hydraulic Consultants. Image shows velocity field around piers.
Flows over submerged vanes for control of river bank erosion are shown colored by velocity magnitude (by University of Illinois; images generated with Tecplot)